Events management case study

MASTER’S LITERATURE REVIEW

EVENTS MANAGEMENT: MAJOR YACHTING REGATTAS

(A) Introduction to Literature Review

(i) Prologue

A literature review of the event management of major yachting regattas presents certain difficulties which at first appear intimidating and even insurmountable – there is, for instance, an extreme paucity of extant literature that considers specifically the event management of major yachting regattas as independent of the management of major sporting or leisure events generally. The student of event management who is interested in aspect of the of the subject that is major yachting regattas is left to scour exotic and obscure corners of various textbooks and scholarly accounts in search of this illusive material; there is however a certain futility in these academic peregrinations since, perhaps surprisingly given their huge global appeal and revenue, very little has been written about the event management of major yachting regattas. The clouds break however and these difficulties appear more surmountable when the student of event management realizes that he can apply an enormous amount of the general material and principles of event management to his investigation of the specific interest of yachting regatta management. The student’s task is to assiduously carry over to the event management of major yachting regattas those theoretical and practical ideas that he has taken from his general study of event management. The next task, this base-camp established, is ask where these general principles must be built upon to take account of the special and individual aspects of yachting regatta management. When seen like this, the present task of reviewing the literature of the event management of yachting regattas takes on a positive and creative hue; the student now has the opportunity to learn much from the existing material, but he does not need to be overwhelmed by it to the extent that independent judgement is no longer possible. The sparseness of literature means that the event management student has to think hard to interpret the material and to mould it into an individual argument of his own. Thus, the present literature review is both a formidable enterprise, but also a bold opportunity for creative research.

(ii) Sources

As was touched upon in the prologue above, there are many individualistic and unique difficulties and challenges associated with the sources that make-up the work of the present literature review. Besides references to particular regatta events, only two sources in this literature review refer directly to the event management of major yachting regattas – these being the ‘Race Management Manual’ of the International Sailing Federation (ISAF, 1998) and, secondly, the ‘Racing Best Practices’ advice of the Royal Yachting Association (RCA, 2000). Moreover, due to their factual rather than analytical nature, these sources are of limited value in throwing light upon the main thrust of the present question: what is the ideal way to conduct the event management of major yachting regattas? These sources are rather codifications of ‘correct practice’ and of the rules and principles that should govern the organization and management of major yachting regattas. These sources are useful nonetheless for giving an insight and glimpse into the specific and atmosphere and spirit of major yachting regattas and the regulations that govern them – these of course needing to be taken into intimate consideration by event managers in charge of organizing such regattas. The reliability and probity of these first two sources are near incontestable: both sources are the official websites of large and highly-respected yachting associations.

The majority of the sources that compose this present literature review are therefore textbooks and other scholarly books and journals that deal with the management of major leisure and sport events generally – and allude to the event management of yachting regattas only occasionally and often briefly. Nonetheless, the principles that underlie the event management of major yachting regattas are, in their essentials, the same as those that underlie other major leisure and sporting events. There is then a large degree of ‘transferability’ of theory and practice, and with this information thus transferred it is possible to build a base for establishing the principles of the event management of yachting regattas. Once this base is constructed, the student can then proceed to fashion those event management practices that are specific to major yachting regattas. These specific principles may, of course, be inferred and inspired both from the base of general event management material and also from the observation and perusal of other types of specific management events: for instance, from witnessing how a major concert or golf tournament differs in the particulars of its management from the general principles that can be applied to any event management project. Of these general books, much use is made of Events Management (2005) written by Glenn Bowdin, Ian McDonnell, Johnny Allen and William O’Toole. This book is an excellent introduction to and explanation of the general ideas and principles behind event management; its erudition and copious use of concrete examples gives the student many opportunities to make his own inferences about how the event management of yachting regattas should be grounded and also how it should be organized in its special features. The authors of this work are all nationally and internationally renowned for their contributions to the development of the field of event management or its attendant sub-disciplines. Also indispensable at the general level were Successful Event Management – A Practical Handbook (Shone & Parry, 2004) and various articles from the journal Managing Leisure. The reliability of both of these sources is generally accepted as very high.

The following major regattas are referred to throughout this literature review, and their website addresses are given where specific quotations are used: the King Edward 7^th Bermuda Gold Cup, the Rolex Osprey Cup, the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race Regatta, the 2004 Athens Olympic Regatta, the 2000 Sydney Olympic Regatta, the China Coast Regatta, the Trafalgar Regatta of 2005 and the Sydney-Hobart Regatta. Websites are typically of more suspect authenticity and reliability than published academic books or journals; the information contained in the above sites should therefore be treated with some caution, but can generally be thought to be authentic and accurate.

(iii) Structure

The structure of the literature review is as follows. Firstly, a general introduction to the field of sports event management and, in particular, the organization of major yachting regattas. In this section the principles of ‘best practice’ are discussed generally and alongside their specific application to the event management of major yachting regattas. Secondly, the literature review gives a brief introduction to yachting regattas: What they are? Who typically organizes them? Which are the major regattas? This section also discusses the ‘Race Management Manual’ of ISAF, its rules and principles and the implications of these for the organization of major regatta events. Allusions are made here, with similar explicatory intentions, to the ‘Racing Best Practices’ advice of the Royal Yachting Association. Thirdly, the review considers the notion of ‘organizational mission’ as it is presented in the literature, and describes the importance of the clarity of this mission for the final success of a regatta event. Fourthly, the review turns to the question of human resource management and the relationship of this to the participation of volunteer and professional staff in regattas. Here, Soldberg’s (2003) Major Sporting Events: Assessing the Value of Volunteer’s Work is of considerable use. Fifthly, organizational theory is reviewed and an analysis is given of how and which theories would be best applied to the event management of yachting regattas. Here, Cole’s (1996) Management: Theory and Practice was again a guiding-light, alongside Goldblatt’s (1997) Special Events: Best Practice in Modern Event Management. The sixth, seventh and eighth sections (Funding, Marketing and Operational management) consider subjects that are a blend of theory and practice and which make use of a wide selection of both general and specific sources. The final section reviews the after-effects of event management generally and yachting regatta management in particular; Bramwell’s (1997) Strategic Planning: Before and After the Mega-Event is particularly elucidating for this topic.

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(B) Understanding Sports Management

How then does the literature define a sports or leisure event? What is an ‘event manager’? What is specific and special about the event management of major yachting regattas?

The answers given in the following section to the above questions are derived from three principal sources: firstly. Events Management (Bowdin, 2005: 1-25), The Events Manager’s Bible: The Complete Guide to Organizing a Voluntary or Public Event (Conway, 2004: 1-13), and Special Events: Best Practice in Modern Event Management (Goldblatt, 1997: various).

What is sports event management? At the risk of answering simplistically: sports events management is the management of major sporting events that fall into one of four categories: mega, calendar, one-off and show-case (Bowdin, 2005: p.18). The management of sports events entails the overall and total coordination and operational control of all aspects to do with the organization and production of this event -- no matter which category that event may fall into. In Britain major sporting events include: the British Formulae One Grand Prix, Wimbledon, the Grand National, the Olympic Games (2012), Rugby Union Internationals and so on. The four categories are defined as follows: mega-events, are distributed after a lengthy bidding process (examples: Olympic Games, Paralympic, the FIFA World Cup); calendar-events are held annually (Wimbledon, The Open Championship, The Embassy World Snooker Championship); one-off events are awarded again after a lengthy bidding process (examples: Rugby World Cup, Cricket World Cup); and, finally, show-case events have special characteristics also (examples: World Judo Championships and the World Disability Championships) (Bowdin, 2005:pp.18-19). Examples of major regattas nationally and internationally that fall into several of these categories include: the King Edward 7^th Bermuda Gold Cup Regatta, the Georgetown Regatta, Little Exuma, the Trafalgar Regatta of September 2005, the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race Regatta and so on.

‘For anything and everything, there has to be one person

with supreme authority. . . .The event manager’s

primary duty is to make or confirm all decisions and

act as central liaison, directing and controlling the

activities of individuals to whom they have

delegated responsibility for elements of the

organization and arrangements for an event.’

(Conway, 2004: 11)

This quotation is given at such length because it neatly encapsulates the main responsibilities of a sports or leisure events manager; it also allows us to go on to answer another important question about the duty of an events manager at a major yachting regatta. Principally, then, the event’s manager is the supreme coordinator for the over-all organization and operation of an event: his or her responsibilities include ensuring the smooth inter-action of the various stages and different teams involved in an event, as well as the successful delegation and assignment of specific people to specific tasks. Section C (Background to Yachting Regattas) deals with this point at greater depth, but, in short, the event manager of a major yachting regatta is the Regatta Chairman, appointed by the Regatta Organizing Committee, and his responsibilities include, generally, the tasks of collating sponsors and ensuring that products and participants are put in place on time etc., , and, specifically, in yachting terms, ensuring that rules are assiduously adhered to and that the finances of the event are managed prudently and successfully (ISAF, 1998: Section 2:1).

(C) Background to Yachting Regattas

The two principal sources used for the analysis presented in this section were ‘Race Management Manual’ (ISAF, 1998) of the International Sailing Federation and the ‘Racing Best Practice’ text published on the internet by the Royal Yachting Association (RYA, ); other sources are those of the specific regattas referred to, as documented in the bibliography of this literature review.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines ‘regatta’ as ‘A congregation of boats or yachts for sporting or other purposes’ (Quirk, 1989) and this definition is implicitly agreed upon by both ISAF and the RYA. Famous examples of major regattas include: the King Edward 7^th Bermuda Gold Cup regatta, the China Coast Regatta and the Sydney-Hobart Boat Race regatta. Major yachting regattas are held at all times of the year and in nearly all international destinations. Regattas such as Olympic regattas held every four years -- most recently Athens in 2004 and Sydney in 2000 -- and the regattas that accompany races such as the Roles Osprey Cup are huge and complicated events that involve many thousands of people, millions of dollars and an enormous amount of preparation. The work-load of a yachting regatta event-manager might best be compared to nothing less that the organization of a major football or athletics tournament. The highly international nature of yachting regattas, the participation of sailors and fans from all over the world, as well as the massive distances often involved, makes the event management of major regattas a logistical challenge of the highest order.

ISAF’s ‘Race Management Manual’ lists in Section 1: Authority and Responsibility the major organizations and groups that need to be taken into consideration by event-managers in their preparations for major-events. The governance of these regattas and the committees that take responsibility for their coordination and organization are: firstly, ISAF itself: the International Sailing Federation. Every four years ISAF makes revisions to and republishes the Rules of Sailing according to which nearly all international regattas adhere to. In coordination with ISAF are the National Authorities of a particular country; for the China Coast Regatta this authority would be the China National Authority, for the Sydney-Hobart Regatta it is the Australian National Authority, and so on. The responsibility of a National Authority is to make interpretations of controversial or event-specific rules and to determine the conditions of their application to a particular regatta; National Authorities can moreover make alterations to particular rules if these changes are in accordance with RRS 86. National Authorities also determine the dates and sites of national regattas, and also sanction the selection of key regatta staff, such as the Regatta Chairman, the Principal Race Officer, and the Protest Committee Chairman (ISAF, 1998: p1). Thirdly, a Host Club chosen by a National Authority is influential in the organization of a regatta to the extent that the Host Club has exclusive knowledge of local weather conditions and environmental factors whose content is vital for the smooth and efficient organization of the regatta. Fourthly, and finally, Class Associations work closely with the three other organizations to ensure that particular class rules and regulations are adhered to precisely. From these four groups either one group in particular or the four groups as a collective will convene to form the Organizing Authority and thus the Regatta Organizing Committee. ISAF explains the responsibility of the committee with these words: ‘. . . The Regatta Organizing Committee will accept responsibility, usually through a number of sub-committees, for all aspects of the regatta. . . . Throughout the organizing and running of a Regatta, the Regatta Organizing Committee should remember that its prime objectives are to: (a) provide fair competition for all competitors (b) ensure that the regatta is run in accordance with the Racing Rules of Sailing . . . ’ and so on (ISAF, 1998: p1). The Regatta Organizing Committee has a number of other key responsibilities for event management – perhaps above all the accounts for the regatta and the business of balancing the books (ISAF, 2000: Section 2:1).

The ISAF manual also shows the Regatta Chairman to have a central role in the organization of a the event, and his or her duties include: ‘. . . contributing to the planning and decision-making relating to the on-and-off-the-water conduct of the regatta . . . (and) convening the Regatta Organizing Committee when necessary . . . to confirm results and review organization and procedures’ (ISAF, 1998: Section 2.1). Clearly then, the Regatta Chairman has a vital role in the successful event management of any major international regatta. The ISAF manual also says that these responsibilities sometimes become so heavy that the chairman has to be relieved of some of his duties; it is implicit in this comment of the manual that the role of the Regatta Chairman may need major revision in any future set of proposals for the successful management of a major regatta proposed by this dissertation.

(D) Yachting Regattas & Organization Mission: The Purpose of Events

‘Every event should have a vision and a mission. This vision can be

separate from the mission or the two expressed as one, but usually the

vision usually describes the long-term goal of the event. The mission

describes in the broadest terms the task that the given organization

has set for itself, stating the reason for staging the event, its

stakeholders and its key objectives. Each event will have a unique

mission, which differentiates it from all other events.’

(Bowdin, 2005: p69)

Bowdin argues here -- albeit in general terms not exclusive to major regatta management -- that for a management event to be successful and rewarding it needs to have a ‘vision’ and a ‘mission’, and what is more, this mission must ‘differentiate (one event) it from all other events’. It is only by having a clear and strategically-planned mission and objective that an organization will prosper in its establishment of sporting or leisure events. That is, a successful event is sustained by ‘the long-term goal of the event’, by having a clear sight of what that event is doing to transform and improve the image and fitness of the organization. Thus, an organization such as the British Olympic Committee has to decide the purpose and fundamental goals of that organization: clearly in this case, these would be: to win their bid for the games, to stage a successful games that promote sporting excellence and the spirit of the Olympic movement, and which subsequently lead to the growth of sport in the country and a rejuvenation of the economy of local and national businesses. These goals clearly in mind, the function and responsibility of the event manager is to present clear strategies for how these goals might be effected.

Turning then to the event management of major yachting regattas, what is it that the organizations behind these events hope to engender staging them? What are the fundamental goals of these organizations? Let us consider the cases of the International Sailing Federation and the Royal Yachting Association. Though a student’s insight into the long-term goals of these organizations is limited to information published by these organizations on their websites and in their magazines, it is possible to speculate about what these might be. At bottom, the basic goal of each organization must be to promote the sport of sailing and yachting and to introduce this sport to the widest and most diverse sections of the population as possible. The sport of sailing globally, as well as in Britain especially, after excellent regattas at both the Sydney and Athens Olympics and elsewhere, is at an ideal moment to maximise upon popular media coverage and to promote its sport as far and wide as possible. Major yachting regattas are such as are ideal exhibitions for the sport of sailing, attracting huge crowds and television audiences. It is therefore vital that the event management behind such regattas both have a clear idea of the aims of the organizations as well as the strategies they will use to effect them. Thus the mission statement of an organization like ISAF and its major regattas must be perfect mirrors of each other – or like parallel lines both heading in exactly the same direction.

(E) Human Resource Management

The literature clearly shows that one of the feature of major sporting or leisure events is the sheer scale of the undertaking for event managers: often hundreds of thousands or even millions of persons will attend an event, and therefore event managers often require an army of volunteer and professional staff to help with the organization of and carrying-out of an event. In the particular example of a major regatta like the Sydney-Hobart regatta thousands of people will be required both on land and sea, in a variety of roles and positions: timers, marking crews, safety-teams, Committee boat members, onshore teams collating results, arranging media and press interviews, checking technical equipment and so on; the event management team therefore need to make their preparations for the use of and distribution of these staff as effectively and precisely as possible – only this will ensure the smooth running of the event. Major regattas also depend heavily upon the generosity of unpaid volunteer staff as Solberg ( 2003) Major Sporting Events: Assessing the Value of Volunteers Work. Managing Leisure 8 has illustrated. The use of such staff by event management has to be handled carefully so that the professional staff are stationed on the posts that they are assigned to and trained for and volunteer staff undertake less specialized and less-risky work. The use of such volunteer staff is vital to keep event costs under-budget. One interesting proposal to be included in a future guide for the management of yachting regatta events is for there to be a skills audit undertaken at the first stage of volunteering so that people can be allocated to positions of suitable skill and therefore volunteers are used more efficiently and thus reduce costs further. There are also legal and contractual differences between the management of professional and volunteer staff; professional staff may be afforded levels of insurance that would not be extended to volunteer staff but who need to be protected also.

(F) Organizational Theory

A number of texts are particularly elucidating about the importance of organizational theory and practice for major sporting events: in particular, Hannagan (1998), Thompson (1997) and Bowdin, (2005). These sources cover all major blocs of management organization: Chief Executive, production, marketing, sales, human resources and so on.

Bowdin (2005: p172) argues that major sporting and leisure events are defined in terms of two sorts of controls: operational controls and (See Section J) organizational controls. The former are concerned with the day-to-day management of an event; the later refer to the totality of the client and organizational expectations for a brief. These expectations concern things such as the profitability of the event as well as the successful appearance it gives to television audiences. Organizational theory covers areas such as the structure of the event, the use of communications equipment, emergency and health services, legal aspects, risk assessment, environmental issues, child protection issues and so on.

The co-ordination of these myriad services and skills requires a comprehensive and precise event management organizational strategy. And only with such a strategy will any major yachting regatta prove to be both a spectator and financial success.

(H) Funding of Yachting Regattas

Burke (1999) in Project Management: Planning and Control Techniques, Getz (1991) in Festivals, Special Events and Tourism and Stayte (1998) in Events From Start to Finish have shown the absolute necessity of prudent and clearly-defined budget principles and expectations for major sporting events. Event management teams must ask themselves the following questions from the very conception of a particular proposed event. Will this regatta make a profit or will it just break-even? If an event were to incur a heavy loss would this undermine the ability of the organization to undertake other events and to accomplish others of its goals? Could a heavy loss be justified by a large amount of good publicity and promotion for a regatta and for the sport of sailing? Event managers therefore need to be certain about the following: how much money are they assured by sponsors and investors? How much can they reasonably expect to make from crowd attendances, television fees, merchandise sales and so on? What measures will be put in place to ensure that this money is spent in a controlled and responsible fashion? Do members of the proposed event management team have the prerequisite financial and administrative skills to handle this money correctly and prudently?

Only if all of the above questions are answered honestly and realistically will a major yachting regatta have sure chance of financial success and therefore of completing part of its mission statement.

(I) Marketing of Yachting Regatta Events

The literature of event management reveals that marketing is a fundamental and essential part of the process of managing an event successfully. What specifically is meant by the term ‘marketing’ in the context of event management? The Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM, 2000 / Bowdin, 2005) refers to marketing as ‘. . . the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating, and satisfying customer requirement profitably’. This general definition can be applied to the marketing of major yachting regattas: in this sense, it is the management process behind the identification of potential yachting enthusiasts, participants, television-viewers, sponsors etc., ; it is the anticipation of the needs of these groups with respect to major regattas; and it is providing the satisfaction for these groups during and after the event. The first two stages -- identification and anticipation -- require comprehensive marketing research and this may be done in a number of ways. To this end Kotler et. al. (Kotler et. al., 1999) have introduced the concept of the ‘marketing mix’ which is defined as ‘. . . the set of controllable tactical marketing tools that the firm blends to produce the response it wants in the target market’ (Kotler, 1999: p. 111). This marketing mix is a combination of awareness of place, product, price and promotion. In terms of major regattas, place refers to the special characteristics and allurements of a particular site (say Sydney or Plymouth Harbour) and the term also refers to the place were event tickets are bought; product means the totality of the regatta experience for the customer: viewing experience, facilities, merchandise, restaurants, beverages and so on; price refers to the identification of the amount that customers would be willing to pay to experience a particular event (a prime ticket for an Olympic regatta will justify a higher price than the annual Georgetown regatta in Little Exuma, Bahamas!); finally, promotion, means the advertisement and publicity for an event, this being highly critical to the financial and viewing success of the occasion. Thus Getz has usefully defined major event marketing as ‘Marketing events is the process of employing the marketing mix to attain organizational goals through creating value for clients and customers. The organization must adopt a marketing organization that stresses the building of mutually beneficial relationships and the maintenance of competitive advantages’ (Getz, 1997: p.50).

The event managers of major yachting regattas must seek to apply this marketing mix as successfully as possible to the particular event that they are working on.

(J) Operational Management

A brief word should be said about what the literature reveals about the operational management – or day-to-day running – of a major sporting regatta.

Operational management can only proceed once a formal strategy for an event has been decided upon; an interesting diagram is given by Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert (1995) showing an ideal structure for the operational management of sporting events. At the head of this diagram are ‘strategic plans’ underneath which are ‘operational plans’ further divided into two sub-sections: ‘non-recurring activities’ and ‘recurring activities’. ‘Non-recurring activities’ further divide into ‘single use plans’, ‘programmes’, ‘projects’ and ‘budgets’. Either ‘non-recurring’ and ‘single-use’ or ‘recurring’ plans may be of application to the operational management of major yachting regattas. For instance, every Olympic Regatta is nearly wholly unique drawing upon the different conditions and themes of the different cities in which they take place; as such, a unique ‘non-recurring’ plan is best used for the operational management of an event like this. But a regatta such as the Sydney-Hobart Race regatta which is repeated regularly might make use of a ‘recurring’ plan as the foundation for operational management, simply adjusting this basic plan to the various changes that occur from year to year.

(K) Post-Event Evaluation

Post-event evaluation includes an analysis of the successful functioning of each of the previous sections. Firstly, the event management must evaluate the extent to which the regatta succeeded in realizing the mission and vision of the organization; this can be measured by polls of public opinion, participant opinion, media opinion and so on. This evaluation of mission is vital if an organization like ISAF is to learn how to evolve and improve in future. Secondly, an evaluation of human resource management has several important consequences: above all, it allows an organization to measure how efficiently they are using the staff and expertise at their command – this efficiency itself having important financial ramifications. The successful integration of professional and volunteer staff may be measured again by holding meeting with these groups and asking them whether the professional staff felt that their expertise was used as it should have been and whether volunteer staff were used correctly to complement the professionals. Thirdly, and perhaps most vitally, a post-event evaluation must analyze the financial success of a major regatta: did finances stay within expenditure targets? Did the regatta make a profit? Did sales and merchandising numbers turn out as the organization predicted they would? The marketing evaluation is crucial here also: was the marketing mix successful in promoting and drawing-in revenue for the event? How might we adjust or tweak this mix in future to make a regatta even more efficient, popular and profitable? If evaluations like these are not made then organizations may simply drift into the future making the same mistakes and repeating the same inefficiencies to the detriment of themselves and their sport.

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(L) Conclusion of Literature Review

In the final analysis, a review of the literature of event management for major yachting regattas returns the student to the paradox with which he began: the near total sparseness of specific literature available for his investigation, yet, simultaneously out of this void, the opportunity to apply theories and practical ideas from general event management in his own and unique way. Perhaps one can say then that use of the material discussed in this review is best suited for the determined and self-confident student who has the boldness to investigate areas of research that have been rarely trodden before. Certainly there is much room for event management students to make major contributions to the existing literature on the subject.

This literature appears to offer the following advice about for event managers in charge of the organization and carrying-out of major yachting regattas. Firstly, echoing Bowdin, event managers and organizations alike must have a clear ‘mission’ and ‘vision’ that lights the way ahead for the future of the organization. This mission and vision must be accompanied by clear strategies for its enactment. To this end, the role of event manager -- or specifically here, Regatta Chairman -- is of seminal importance, both for the efficiency of the event itself and also for its after-effects and for its financial viability. The event manager and his team should have an intimate knowledge of the human resources (volunteer and professional) available to them and they should be able to organize these into the most effective partnerships and coordinated units. This human resource management needs to take account of both long-term (planning and after-effects) resource needs and short-term ones (the requirements on the day of the regatta). To this end the event management should have a good knowledge of organizational theory and the best ways to put it into practice. The funding and marketing of regattas are perhaps the most crucial and vital of all stages, for without these being organized effectively no regatta will be a success. Finally, after every major regatta the event managers have to look objectively and honestly at the mistakes and failures of that regatta; this openness and post-event evaluation lets the organization see how close it has come to fulfilling its mission statement and vision and in what areas more needs to be done to bring these things to realization.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

-- Bodwin, G. (et al). (2005). Events Management. Butterworth-Heinemann, London.

-- Bramwell, B. (1997). Strategic Planning Before and After a Mega-Event. Tourism Management, 18.

-- Burke, R. (1999). Project Management: Planning and Control Techniques. John Wiles & Sons, Chichester.

-- Cartwright, G. (1995). Making the Most of Trade Exhibitions. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

-- Cole, G.A. (1996). Management: Theory and Practice. (5^th Ed.) Letts, London.

-- Conway, D. (2004). The Event Manager’s Bible. How To Books Ltd., Oxford.

-- Getz, D. (1991). Festivals, Special Events and Tourism. Van Nostrand, New York.

-- Getz, D. (1997). Event Management and Event Tourism. Cognizant, New York.

-- Gratton, C., Dobson, N., & Shibli, S. (2000). The Economic Importance of Major Sports Events: A Case-Study of Six Events.

-- Goldblatt, J. (1997). Special Events: Best Practice in Modern Event Management. (2^nd Ed.) John Wiley & Sons, New York.

-- Graham, S. Nettori, L.D. & Goldblatt, J. (2001). The Ultimate Guide to Sports Event Management and Marketing. McGraw-Hill, New York.

-- Hannagan, T. (1998). Management Concepts and Practices. (2^nd Ed.). Pitman Publishing, London.

-- Kotler, P(Et. Al.). (1999). Principles of Marketing. Prentice Hall, London.

-- Quirk, R. (et. al.) (Editors). (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary. (1989). Oxford University Press, Oxford.

-- Shone, A. & Parry, B. (2004). Successful Event Management – A Practical Handbook. (2^nd Ed.). Thompson, London.

-- Slack, T. (1997). Understanding Sports Organizations. Human Kinetics.

-- Soldberg, H.A. (2003). Major Sporting Events: Assessing the Value of Volunteers Work. Managing Leisure 8.

-- Stayte, S. & Watt, D. (1998). Events from Start to Finish. ILAM, Reading.

-- Thompson, J. L. (1997). Strategic Management: Awareness and Change. (3^rd Ed.). International Thompson Business Press, London.

-- Torkildsen, G. (1999). Leisure and Recreation Management. (4^th Ed.) E. & F.N. Spon, London.

-- Veal, A. (1997). Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism. (2^nd Ed.). Pitman, London.

-- Webb, J. & Carter, S. (2001). Sponsorship Activities and the Small Firms Sector. Managing Leisure 6.

-- White, B. (2000). Dissertation Skills for Business and Management Students. Continuuem, London.

Internet Sources

-- Royal Yachting Association. www.rca.org/images/uploadee

-- (ISAF) (1998). International Sailing Associated Federation.

www.sailing.org/raceofficials/rmanual.pdf