Improving the quality of diversity initiatives

Abstract

Achievement of diversity in the workplace is an integral component of the last frontier that needs conquering, in the movement to ensure equality for all sections of society, in a local, national and global context. While democracy and freedom have given all sections of society, in most countries, the freedom to vote and equality before law, equal employment opportunities in the workplace is still to come. Jobs mostly go to dominant sections of society, thus furthering economic inequality between affluent and deprived sections of society.

In the UK, a truly multicultural nation, an aware society has ensured the passage of legislation to ensure the abolition of unfair practices in the workplace because of the sex, race, religion, age or sexual orientation of prospective or current employees. However, governmental intentions still need translation into direct action at the ground level, especially with small employers, who make up the bulk of the business structure of the country. This research assignment investigates into the reasons for the rather slow progress of initiatives to improve diversity initiatives, with special reference to the public sector.

Contents

1. Introduction

a. Overview

Humankind has practiced inequality and discrimination for thousands of years. The root cause of discrimination, prejudice, works at the level of the dominant population against race, colour, nationality, religion, community and sex. Prejudice, an intensely disturbing and negative emotion, has led to the commitment of some of the greatest crimes against humanity. The concept of equality, among humans, is of recent origin, and gained currency only during the French Revolution. While the idea of egalitarianism has achieved widespread acceptance since then, the practice of inequality, and the conditioning and mindsets of centuries, has been difficult to overcome, and progress has occurred in fits and starts.

Prejudice and discrimination exist even today in many parts of the world, and emerge in a myriad ways, some subtle and some not so. While women have always been, and continue to be, victimised by prejudice and discrimination, many other population segments, which do not belong to the dominant group, also serve as convenient targets. In countries like the UK and the USA, societies predominantly controlled by male whites, prejudice hurts the lives of ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, foreigners, as well as other groups, who are not part of the main stream. (Anderson, 2004)

Prejudice, very often, evidences itself in the workplace, with managements of business organisations exhibiting a marked aversion to hiring women and ethnic minorities, especially for jobs carrying better salaries and greater responsibilities. It is only in recent years that Indians, for example, have started moving out of the mop and pail environs of Heathrow airport, and into the offices of accountants, as well as into the clinics of the NHS. Nevertheless, initiatives to increase the representation of people belonging to the “out” groups, in jobs, across the spectrum of business and other organisations in the UK, are steadily gaining momentum. Business organisations, government departments and other employers are giving serious thought and taking action to the task of increasing the representation of different communities, at various levels, in their places of work. (Fine, 1996) In fact, diversity in the workplace has now become something of a holy cow, and very much the politically correct thing to do.

b. Definition of Problem

Prima facie, it would be nothing more than normal, in democratic and advanced societies, in the twenty first century, to believe in equality of creed, religion, sex, age and ethnicity. A truly multi cultural and intrinsically fair society should be able to, in the ordinary course of events, give equal opportunities to all its members. Equal employment opportunities in the workplace, equal respect for all peoples, should be an incontestable and incontrovertible reality, and the very fact that it remains a matter for debate, discussion, and decision-making, and that too in the present and not in the historical context, is very disturbing. Diversity in the workplace, at the ground level, is still far away from implementation. The staffing structures of most organisations tilt towards employing white males, even in the presence of possibly more suitable people from other social segments. (Fine, 1996) While the official websites of many companies contain appropriately worded statements about equal opportunity employment, and the requirement for achieving further diversity, very few organisations can actually lay claim to having achieved the demographic structure of the region, or country, in the staffing of their companies, the true indicator of workplace diversity. The instinct to put people in boxes and the problem of achieving diversity in the workplace continues to exist. It needs early and urgent resolution, in the interest of a level playing field, and an equal world.

c. Objective

This assignment delves deeply into the subject of workplace diversity. It attempts to examine the issue from historical, social, economic and management perspectives, in order to locate the deeper factors, the real causes, which possibly remain below the surface, but are able to influence or hinder the rapidity and spread of its implementation. The study goes on to cover the opportunities and dilemmas that organisations face while implementing workplace diversity. While the assignment covers relevant workplace issues across a spectrum of employers in the USA, the UK, its impact in public sector companies, with special emphasis on NASA has come in for detailed investigation.

The subject matter is enormous. The assignment involves examination of primary and secondary information sources, study of available literature, and the conduct of primary research, with appropriate and carefully chosen respondents. It makes substantial use of secondary material in the form of texts, journals and magazine articles as well as internet sources for purposes of data availability, analysis and investigation. Despite serious and sincere effort, some important information regarding the topic may well have not found place in the assignment, a deficiency that could limit the validity of its conclusions. The list of references and the bibliography provide complete details of the accessed information. The order of issues taken up for discussion is sequential, for the sake of logical progression of ideas and thought.

2. The Historical Perspective

Discrimination, arising from prejudice, has existed for centuries, as evidenced by the treatment meted out to women, as well as to people of certain communities. Women have faced unfair and suppressive treatment, in mostly all communities, across continents, and that too, for ages. Prejudice against women, was, and still is pervasive. It exists in all patriarchal societies and it is difficult to find a religion that treats men and women equally. Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Hinduism find common ground in the degradation of women as well as in their active persecution.

“Even the Greco-Roman influence on the status of women draws mainly on the writings of Aristotle, who predated Christianity by about 350 years. In the Aristotelian position, women are viewed as morally, intellectually, and physically inferior to men. They are incomplete human beings, without a fully developed soul. They are irrational, and even with extensive schooling could not attain the intellectual status of men.” (Fishbein, 2002)

The example of Nazi Germany is illustrative. In Germany, women, after centuries of male domination were just about beginning to get a taste of equality with the introduction of the right to vote by the Weimar Republic, in 1918, when the Nazis took over power and changed the rules of the game. Hitler and his Nazi followers believed that the role of women should be restricted to procreation and the rearing of children, thereby increasing the numbers of pure and racially superior Germans. This mindset led to their banishing women from politics, public life, education and gainful professional employment, and brought in decades of gender suppression and inequality comparable to what existed in medieval Europe. The services of married female doctors, and government officials, stood terminated and women stood barred from acting as judges or public prosecutors. Hitler thought that they would not be able to “think logically or reason objectively, since they are ruled only by emotion” (Kaplan, and Schleunes, 1990) In a startling but related development, the number of female students at German universities went down from more than 18000 before the Nazis came to power to less than 6000 in 1939.

Apart from women, blacks, Jews, Asians and people belonging to ethnic minorities have been victims of prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice, sociologists’ state, finds expression mostly against the poor, the defeated, the needy and the dispossessed. In countries like the USA, debates on workplace representation focus upon people from the African American community, the Hispanics and Asian immigrants. In the UK, it is again the people from economically weaker black and Asian communities, whose representation in the workplace is significantly inferior to that of the whites. Halfway, across the globe, in a country like India, enormous discrimination still exists against people who belong to the lower castes. Even a couple of decades ago people from these communities would not be allowed to enter houses or places of work, leave alone, get employment. While governmental policies enforcing compulsory reservation of jobs have led to an improvement of the situation, much work still remains. (Omvedt, 1993)

3. The Current Position

Across the globe countries, governments, social service organisations and business communities are working towards achieving equal opportunities in the workplace through a range of legal and social measures. These efforts are possibly more emphatic, and receive greater publicity, in societies that are diverse, encompass many distinct social and economic divisions, and have histories of social discrimination and inequality. Countries like the USA and India, professing democracy and equality, one with a history of black slavery and inequality, and the other with a social fabric deeply divided among caste lines, are important examples of the problems, dilemmas and opportunities associated with the furtherance of diversity in the workplace. The United Kingdom, again a multi cultural and multi racial society, with a centuries-old history of imperialism, is another relevant model, where attempts to achieve equal opportunity in employment are throwing up social, business and economic problems.

a. The United States

President John Kennedy initiated Affirmative Action in the United States through the creation of the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission, which mandated that contractors engaged on federally funded projects take Affirmative Action to ensure that hiring and employment practices be free of racial bias. The mandating of the commission was a small beginning to alleviate the problems that African Americans in the USA faced in most occupations.

For the African American in 1960, then, the result was a vicious circle. Job discrimination reduced employment opportunity, resulted in low income, and that in turn limited availability of education and training programs, keeping skills low and reducing employment opportunities and income. Consequently, the average white family income that year was more than $5,800 but the black counterpart was just above $3,200. Blacks were concentrated in labour and other menial jobs, and occupational progress during the booming economy of the 1950s was distressingly slow. Between 1950 and 1960 the number of self-employed blacks actually dropped by 10,000, black-owned businesses declined by a third, while their unemployment remained at double the rate for whites (Anderson, 2004)

The credit for laying the foundation of Affirmative Action in the USA lies squarely with John Kennedy who had the moral courage and strength to discard the conservatism of his predecessor Dwight Eisenhower and strike out on his own to bring in the new equality. Affirmative Action has been highly controversial in the US, right from its beginnings in 1961. Critics state that policies, which provide preferential treatment to people based on their membership in a group, violate the principle of equality of individuals equal under law. They regard it unfair to discriminate against members of one group today to compensate for discrimination against other groups in the past and think of it as a form of reverse discrimination that unfairly targets whites and men in the workplace.

While it took many years, marked by disputes, legal cases, raised emotions and inherent prejudices, for things to change President Kennedy’s mandate did succeed in initiating the advancement of blacks and other minorities in the American workplace. Title VII of the 1964 Civil rights Act pertains to all employers, public, private or non-profit, and makes it illegal to discriminate in employment. Victims of discrimination have the right to trial and can claim compensation and damages, if they can prove their case. While the high number of cases registered and the significant amount of money ordered for payment in compensation judgments points to the continued prevalence of discrimination in the workplace there has also been a sea change in public perception towards the injustice of discrimination and in the increased incidence of private sector companies who are following the lead of the public sector and taking Affirmative Action in the workplace. “The vast majority of citizens today support the ideals of equal opportunity, and as the nation began the new millennium the federal government, most states, many universities, and the private sector continued various affirmative action programs.” (Anderson 2004)

The managements of many American organizations consider Affirmative Action to be a worthwhile objective that apart from promoting fairness and equality also contributes to the richness of the working environment and adds to the competitiveness of the organisation

In the workplace, diversity as equal opportunities is perceived to have many economic advantages in terms of maximizing the human resource potential in reaching organizational objectives: good recruitment and retention, improved working relationships in an atmosphere of inclusion, free from fear and allowing for personal development and growth, whilst remaining competitive both in the local and global economy. (Armstrong, 2004)

Diversity in the workplace means having to do away with the old concept of working only with white males, and giving significant representation to minorities who could be females, blacks, Hispanics or Asians. It also implies putting enough commitment and sincerity into the effort to ensure that the efforts succeed in building organizations that apart from being socially committed are also competitive and successful in the marketplace. Diversity management is very much a long-term process and involves changing corporate culture to make people understand that cultural diversity is a business issue and employees in organizations will benefit from its adoption.

b. India

Approximately 250 million people in India, 4 times the population of the UK and 80 % of the population of the US live outside the realm of society. They are the people who are born very low in or outside the caste system. The caste system largely, still defines social status in India and the people who are born foul of its ambit lead lives of wretched misery, the extent of which will probably be incomprehensible to people who have not participated in their ignominy and shame.

Most social reformers have realized the enormous misery of their existence and tried to improve their condition. Mohandas Gandhi, the architect of India’s freedom struggle against the British Empire was one of the first social activists to raise his voice against the treatment meted out to these unfortunates. Gandhi’s appeals to his countrymen did not really succeed in changing the mindsets of the upper caste Hindus but led to the beginning of legislation, enacted specifically to give them special privileges and thereby give them an advantage in life.

Apart from Gandhi, the untouchables also produced a man of immense calibre, B.R Ambedkar, who took up Gandhi’s work, gave it a huge force multiplier and was largely successful in improving their conditions significantly. The efforts of Gandhi made the use of the word “untouchable” illegal and paved the way for constitutional benefits that were going to be far stronger than the affirmative action initiated in the USA for black Americans. Today the Dalit community is a very strong political force and controls more than four of India’s 27 states.

Apart from religious activism and political power the Dalit fraternity led by Ambedkar, Gandhi and other leaders pushed hard for constitutional reservations that would reserve seats for them in educational institutes and employment in government offices. Most political parties also realized the power of the Dalit vote bank and joined hands in supporting the Dalit demand for reserved seats. Over a period of 60 years, the reserved quota has gone up from 15 % to just about 50 % today. This sparked off enormous resentment and protests have come in from the media, big business and even the fast growing BPO industry. “India's outsourcing edge will get killed with controversial proposal for reservation of seats in elite educational institutions. Quality is a major concern for all Western and Japanese companies operating in India.” (Chaube, 2006)

There are striking parallels between the black community of the USA and the Dalits of India. However, the Dalits have been able to wrest much more advantages and benefits from the state than the black movement in the US. A large amount of this improvement in status is due to the reservation policy that guarantees Dalit students 50 % of the seats in educational institutions across the country.

c. The United Kingdom

The position in the UK is different from that of the USA and India. While the country does not have a history of intentional discrimination against any specific groups of people, income and social differences continue to exist between the dominant white population and people from other communities, mostly Africans and Asians. Africans came into the country, in large numbers, in the early fifties, mainly from the Caribbean islands, to augment Britain’s depleted industrial work force and found ready employment in factories and workshops. Asians have come in a steady stream, from the former colonies of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. In the recent past, the UK has also played host to large numbers of migrants arriving from East European countries in search of livelihood. The British have, over time, responded with a number of initiatives to make the island nation a truly multi cultural and equal society. At the legal level a number of enactments, namely (a) the disability discrimination act of 1995, (b) the disability discrimination act of 2005, (c) the race relations act of 1976, (d) the race relations amendment act of 2000, the sex discrimination act of 1975, (e) the employment equality (sex discrimination regulations) of 2005, the human rights act of 1995, (f) the equal pay act of 1970, (g) the employment equality ( sexual orientation) regulations of 2003, (h) the employment equality (religion or belief) regulations of 2003 (i) the employment equality (age) regulations of 2006, (j) the rehabilitation of offenders act of 1974 and (k) the data protection act of 1998 aim to ensure legal protection to all groups and communities. (Appendix 1 provides further details of the legislation and regulations currently in force) To put it concisely, legislation in the UK ensures the prevention of discrimination because of sex, race, religion, disability, age, sexual orientation and past convictions. While there is no active policy, on the lines of affirmative action in the USA, or job and seat reservations in India, British lawmakers are trying for a multi cultural, and socially and economically inclusive society, by discouraging any overt attempts at discrimination.

Over the years, these efforts, along with the gradual acceptance of a multi ethnic world have arguably paid some dividends, but their impact has been nominal and mostly restricted to larger organisations. A recent (2006) study by Peter Urwin and Franz Buscha on “Changing Gender and Ethnic Diversity in the UK Workplace” reveals that change has been excruciatingly slow in coming and has been restricted to larger companies.

Using the WERS, 1998 and 2004 cross-sectional studies to examine the changes in the ethnic and gender composition at the workplace we find that in 1998 nearly 47 percent of respondent companies reported not employing any non-white individuals. Whilst this proportion had only dropped to 45 percent by 2004, this figure hides more significant changes when viewed by company size. we find that small companies with less than 25 employees in 1998 did not change their ethnic employee mix much during the intervening years. In contrast, we find much more pronounced changes in larger companies employing between 25 and 1000 employees. (This) is reflected in a rise in the average proportion of non-white employee’s in UK firms from 5.8 per cent in 1998 to 8.4 percent in 2004. However, we see that this overall rise hides considerable differences in the rate of change experienced amongst different industry sectors; with the utilities, hotel and restaurant, and education sectors experiencing particularly pronounced rises in their proportions of non-white workers; though the opposite is true for the construction and financial service industries. Alongside this evidence for ethnic minority workers, the data suggests that in 1998, 21.5 percent of employees were women working part-time and 27.6 percent of all employees were females working full-time; but by 2004, the proportion of women working part-time had decreased to 19.1 percent, whilst the percentage of women working full-time had increased to 33.3 percent. We (also) see that, of all firms who reported that they had no Equal Opportunities or Diversity policy in place in either 1998 or 2004, 73 per cent experienced no change in the proportions of ethnic minorities in the workplace; in contrast, approximately 55 per cent of firms who had a policy in place in both 1998 and 2004 reported an increase in the proportion of ethnic minorities in the workplace. (Urwin and Buscha, 2006)

Appendix 2 contains statistical details pertinent to the study carried out by Urwin and Buscha. Evidently, despite good intentions and legal proactivity, little has happened on the ground to improve diversity in the workplace.

4. Opportunities and Benefits

The United Kingdom, in the days of Empire, was adept at handling people from a plethora of different nationalities, religions, races and ethnicities productively, and for the economic and political benefit of the country. While imperialism is an outdated concept, the success of the British Empire was largely due to the ability of its representatives, officials and managers to manage, motivate, and control diverse and often warring peoples under one large umbrella. These skills, which led to an inclusive political and geographical organisation, appear to be consigned to oblivion and the current leaders of the British establishment are finding it difficult to include the various segments of its miniscule population into its social and economic structure. There is however, a growing awareness of the enormous long-term benefits that can accrue to British business and society through achievement of diversification in the workplace. Much of this impetus comes from major international business houses, which, because of their immense experience in handling employees from different communities and cultures, come to realise the benefits of a diverse and large talent pool. While many of these organisations are American, some British companies like British Petroleum and Unilever have also been able to achieve significant diversity in their workforce with excellent corporate benefits.

Companies have come to accept the idea that the process of introducing diversity in the workplace involves an understanding of the fact that diversity will no longer be a fashionable social word but become an essential part of British corporate structure.

Managing diversity" is fast becoming the corporate watchword of the decade--not because corporations are becoming kinder and gentler toward culturally diverse groups but because they want to survive and in order to survive a growing number of organizations will have to recruit, train, and promote culturally diverse employees. (Henderson, 1994)

The process of managing diversity in corporations has already begun and a number of companies have put programs into place to deal with cultural diversity. Experts also feel that ensuring and managing cultural diversity will become one of the important requirements for corporate success.

Companies that start the process now (or have already started) will reap an overwhelming competitive advantage in years to come. Those that lag will suffer as the marketplace and the labour force becomes increasingly more diverse. "If we don't begin to ... unleash the power that all the various groups in our national work force have to offer," Thomas says, "we will compromise all our institutions - business, academic, religious, governmental and civic.( Black Enterprise, 1994)

Companies like Reebok, AT & T, IBM and Morgan Stanley have been enouraging a culture of diversity for many years now and while Reebok focusses on buying goods from companies owned by people from different ethnic communities, AT & T believes in continuously recruiting personnel from minority groups and in managing the whole process through a specifically formed interdepartmental, multidisciplinary process management team. Philip Morris has a very well developed diversity management process in place that starts with a written mandate.

The action refers to legally mandated written plans and statistical goals for recruiting, training, and promoting specific underutilized groups. This quantitative, compliance-oriented approach is remedial in that it attempts to right previous wrongs. The major focus is to assimilate qualified, underrepresented people into the organization. (Henderson, 1994)

Baxter Healthcare Corporation has a very detailed diversity management process, which commences with an assessment and is followed with a needs assessment, mission statement, leadership strategy, and training. The investment in human capital makes it imperative for them to build competitive advantage through a well defined process. Wyeth is another international company that believes in increasing competitive advantage through a rich diversity management program. The official website of the company states as follows.

Improved diversity management will increase our competitive status by: Achieving excellence through improved recruitment, development, and retention of high potential individuals from an increasingly diverse candidate pool; Improving relationships and expanding business with global and diverse customer and client communities; Enhancing creativity and problem-solving ability as we work toward finding solutions for diseases and conditions affecting people around the world; and Elevating our internal and external company image. (Wyeth, 2006)

The increasing numbers of African, Asian, and female employees also means that the percentage of white males in the demographic structure of organisations needs to necessarily reduce with the passage of time. It is essential for corporations to realise that any action that will delay or hinder the assimilation of these new entrants into the workforce in areas that are conducive to their skills will lead to a gradual erosion and exhaustion of the competitive and creative skills of organisations. Truly creative organisations tend to build up teams and processes that stimulate creativity by providing unrestricted environments, clear goals and an array of diverse knowledge skills. Most people believe that cultural diversity leads to a quantum jump in the generation of ideas and in the creative process of an organisation. NASA is a phenomenal example of a public sector diversity initiative, where multicultural teams, whites, Asians, Africans and females have built one of the world’s most creative institutions.

The example of Philip Morris, which has been committed to the concept of diversity in the workplace, much before the terminology was coined and has been able to build a rich, diverse and intensely competitive organization showcases the potential benefits of a properly thought out and well implemented policy of diversity in the workplace. The company operates in over 160 countries, with employees who belong to 100 different nationalities and speak more than 80 languages. The company’s website states, “We are truly a diverse organization. Our goal is to build an environment of equal opportunities, where each employee can use their unique talents and work style to contribute creative ideas to meet and exceed business and personal objectives.” (Philip Morris International, 2007)

The official website of the company emphasises that the wide array of life experiences, of its employees, helps in producing a range of diverse perspectives that fosters creativity and enables the company to produce superior thinking and excellent results, and results in powerful competitive advantage. The company encourages employees to come forward and provide direction for initiatives, demonstrate leadership and support ideas. It provides employees with opportunities to engage in the Company's diversity and engagement efforts. Opportunities include serving on Departmental DiversityCouncils and participating in Company-sponsored activities that support the communities in which we live and work. Communication takes place through a variety of internal channels, to inform employees about the benefits of a diverse and highly engaged workforce. (PhilipMorrisUSA, 2007)

A key study by the European Commission (1993) also found after a detailed survey of 200 companies in the EU states and four detailed case studies that effective programs to increase diversity in companies resulted in the following benefits.

• strengthened 'cultural values' within the organisation,
• enhanced corporate reputation. Around 69% of companies participating in the study stated that their reputation had been enhanced by diversity policies
• better attraction and retention of highly talented people, cited by 62% of survey participants
• improved innovation and creativity among employees. Just under 60% of participants said that the implementation of diversity policies had improved motivation and efficiency and 57% cited increased innovation;
• enhanced service levels and customer satisfaction, cited by 57% of participants
• help in overcoming labour shortages, also cited by 57% of participants
• reduced labour turnover
• lower absence rates
• improved access to new market segments
• avoided litigation costs
• Improved global management capacity (Broughton, 2004)

Managers across a broad spectrum of companies in the USA, Europe and the UK are actively involved in diversification programmes of varying intensity and success. There also appears to be consensus on its uses in bringing about, along with the achievement of social equality, a number of other important benefits.

Now, companies are embracing diversity as a business focus and corporate value. Embracing diversity isn't just the right thing to do; there's a strong business case for it. The globalization and proliferation of new retail markets in an Internet-driven world are presenting unprecedented new business opportunities. Via the Web, a company can target its products to virtually any market: African Americans, Hispanics, baby boomers, gays, lesbians, older people, and soccer moms. All of those groups have identifiable and increasing buying power, say marketing experts. Companies recognize the importance of creating workplaces that look like their marketplaces and that do not discriminate based on race, age, gender, ethnic background, religion, or sexual orientation. (Koonce, 2001)

Organizations employing a varied labour force can provide a greater assortment of solutions to problems in operational work. These entrants from dissimilar backgrounds bring individual aptitudes and skills in providing solutions that are adaptable to changing market and customer demands. A diverse collection of skills and experiences (in languages and culture) enables a company to provide service to customers on a global basis. A diverse workforce is also comfortable in conveying differing points of view, as well provides a larger pool of ideas and experiences. The organization can draw from that pool to meet business strategy needs and the needs of customers more effectively. Companies that encourage diversity in the workplace fulfil another very important function. They serve as examples of modern liberal thinking, encourage other organisations to assume their role and instil pride in their employees. This helps in two ways, enabling maximisation of employee potential and creating enormous goodwill in the marketplace.

5. Challenges and dilemmas

Despite a growing realization of the benefits of achieving diversity, as well as the knowledge of its inevitability, diversity is yet to really make its mark and there are very few organisations, whose staff structure represents the demographic structure of its surrounding society. The political implications and the constant debates that surround issues related to diversity make it exceedingly complex for managers to design and construct meaningful know how to create appropriate and meaningful attitudes to response to issues that relate to diversity. Socio- political discussions of diversity programmes have become replete with politically correct terminology and have assumed a symbolic dimension that frequently tends to overshadow or conceal the actual state of affairs. Individuals who could benefit from such initiatives often end up debased, and resentful of diversity gestures.

Most organizations, despite their stated belief in equal opportunity policies, have practices that range between inclusion and blatant discrimination. These agencies subsequently struggle with issues of gender, ethnic/racial difference, disability, and the sexual orientation of their employees (James, 1996; Minors, 1996). Many agencies, sometimes knowingly, but often unknowingly, develop institutional/organizational barriers that limit the access to services for their clientele and inhibit employment opportunities for their employees. (Allison, 1999)

Most of the challenges that organisations face in implementation of diversity exist below the surface, in unexpressed and subconscious mindsets that come to the fore at the time of taking important decisions. Organisations that have embraced some elementary decisions to implement diversity, without a clearly articulated and agreed programme are most likely to suffer from such constraints. Such organisations, while publicly known to be non-discriminatory, often condone and accept power and influence differences between sets of employees. Diversity policies become emblematic rather than substantive, and the moral and ethical issues become shrouded by the desire to be legally and politically correct Multi culturism often becomes a politically correct façade rather than a focussed objective and the removal of barriers in policy does not accompany its implementation on the ground. In such organisations, women, members of ethnic groups, as well as people with disabilities, are welcomed but expected to conform to the behavioural stereotypes of the dominant white groups. Issues about accepting diversity often exist deep below the surface of organisational culture and the use of power and authority by the management, or by members of the dominant group, be it in issues like enhancement of responsibilities, interdepartmental transfers, or even in the arranging of office picnics strengthens and reinforces organisational preconceptions. While some enlightened and progressive members of the dominant groups do try to alleviate the grimness of the situation, they are incapable of solving these problems on their own.

To redesign social systems, we need first to acknowledge their colossal unseen dimensions. The silences and denials surrounding privilege are the key political tool here. They keep the thinking about equality or equity incomplete, protecting unearned advantage and conferred dominance by making these taboo subjects. Most talk by whites seems to me now to be about equal opportunity to try, to get into a position of dominance while denying that systems of dominance exist. (Steihm, 1994)

In many cases, members of the dominant group suffer from a severe lack of exposure to minorities and while they are sincere in their desire to promote diversity, tend to feel much more comfortable with what they feel to be familiar, with consequently undesirable consequences.

They are in such a mind set, there are people who have been in a position for a long period and they cannot accept new ideas. It has always been done this way, it works, why change a good thing. Often times, in a large bureaucracy, I think that managers set up obstacles for new and innovative programming through excessive paperwork. Often the bureaucratic set up squashes creativity . . . and once the creativity has been squashed; it is very difficult to get it back. (Steihm, 2004)

The introduction of diversity has, on many occasions, led to adverse reaction from existing staff, and resulted in adverse actions like harassment and bullying. Bullying refers to situations where people feel subjected to negative behaviour from others at work over a period of time and in situations where, for different reasons, they are unable to defend themselves against these actions. It could relate to and be caused because of sex, religion, creed, ethnicity, physical appearance or just plain dislike. It may also encompass other forms of hostile, intimidating, threatening, humiliating or violent behaviour, which are offensive or intimidatory in nature. Exposure to persistent and regular bullying may also make it difficult for workers to cope with daily tasks. Other symptoms of bullying include anxiety, headaches, nausea, ulcers, various illnesses of organs such as the kidney, contemplating suicide, sleeplessness, skin rashes, irritable bowel syndrome, high blood pressure, bursting into tears and loss of self-confidence. Bullying arises from the same basic emotional mindsets that govern rejection of new entrants into the workplace, primarily feelings of insecurity and unfamiliarity with different people.

6. Diversity in the Public Sector/ NASA

Diversity, as a vehicle of social engineering, is under implementation, by governments all over the world, as an integral part of their political and social agenda. Private sector organisations, even though socially committed, have an agenda determined by various stakeholders, and the implementation of diversity often suffers because of other pressing priorities. Most of the initiatives taken in the private sector occur in large companies, and smaller organisations prefer to concentrate primarily on their business and profit objectives. Changes in organisational staffing in the smaller companies have happened extremely slowly and any sort of implementation has been practically negligible. (Urwin and Buscha, 2006) Public sector organisations have however been mandated to achieve diversity in a phased and progressive manner. Most public sector companies have clearly articulated diversity policies in place and the management makes serious efforts to meet diversity objectives. In India, all public sector companies need to necessarily fill 25 % of all vacancies with people from the backward communities. While this makes the job of the human resources managers extremely difficult and involves much higher outlays on training, it does result in a fairly represented and diverse workplace and the gradual breakdown of social and economic barriers. NASA, (the National Aeronautical and Space Agency) one of the best-known federal agencies of the USA, though unhindered by compulsory reservation policies, has managed to achieve a truly diverse and well-represented workplace. Furthermore, NASA has never made any compromise with quality in achieving its objectives. The company firmly believes that its diverse workforce is its main strength and the main driver of creativity in America’s space programme.

"As the leader of NASA," said Goldin, "I have the obligation to communicate, communicate, communicate." Goldin communicates his support of diversity initiatives to the public, legislators, administrators and his employees. "I tell them in the years ahead, three quarters of those entering the work force will be women and minorities, so diversity is a fact of life." In praising his diverse team of astronauts who recently repaired the Hubble Telescope, Goldin is convinced "Diversity in the workplace brings a better product. We are finding at NASA that diversity has made us a much stronger organization." (Diversity and NASA, 2002)

The organisation has a clear and unambiguous diversity policy and a specific office, which oversees the implementation of NASA’s diversity policy. A senior official, the Assistant Administrator for Diversity and Equal Opportunity is responsible for a host of diversity functions, including defining objectives, ensuring development of diversity policies, providing training and reporting to congress. Appendix 3 provides an exhaustive detailing of the functions of NASA’s diversity office. (Office of diversity and equal opportunity, 2007) The organisation has backed up bureaucratic intention with actual implementation on the floor and created a truly diverse organisation in which women and non-whites have played stellar roles.

Nearly four decades later, today’s NASA is arguably the most diverse agency of the federal government. Most of the current generation that comprises the NASA workforce grew up watching the halcyon days of the Apollo program on television or the first flights of the space shuttle. For many, while they were fascinated and inspired by the space program, it was difficult to picture themselves working in, on, or for space. NASA’s current diversity is reflected not just in the myriad of jobs and programs but in the stories of the people that carry on that work. They come to work to explore the origin and evolution of the universe, to develop new technologies, organize huge databases, fly into orbit, organize finances and answer telephones. Every NASA field center is filled with fascinating people whose personal journeys are at times courageous and inspiring. These are the multihued threads that make up a rich tapestry but all share a common bond—they love the work they do. (Diversity and NASA, 2002)

The contribution of the public sector towards achievement of diversity has been far more significant than that of the private sector in most countries including the UK. The NHS (National Health Service) is an example of a diverse organisation with far greater representation of women and other ethnic groups than the average private sector company. While Section 3 of the assignment elaborates the efforts being put in by a number of international companies, none of them have the levels of commitment that public sector organisations show for achieving diversity objectives. While the public sector often faces criticism and pillory for being slow, bureaucratic and less committed towards achievement of profits, it has repeatedly showed its social commitment. Its approach towards achieving workplace diversity reinforces this humaneness.

7. Research Methodology

a. Research Questions

An analysis of the available primary and secondary material available on diversity in the workplace and related issues reveals that diversity occupies significant mind space in most democratic countries. Governments, eminent thinkers, politicians and business leaders agree on its need and importance for social engineering aimed at achieving equal opportunities in the work place. A good amount of research work and study also reveals its many benefits, not just by way of achieving social equality, but also by way of improving the innovative and creative abilities of organisations and towards the improvement of competitive advantage. Despite the urgent need for achieving social equality of all people, regardless of sex, age, religion, race, or sexual orientation and the enactment of comprehensive legislation the actual achievement of some amount of diversity has been disappointingly low and restricted to government departments, public sector corporations and large international companies. This dissertation attempts to investigate the matter further at the primary level. A review of existing material and literature available on the subject thus leads to the framing of the following research questions.

The primary Research Question for this assignment is as under.

• Why are the initiatives for achieving diversity in the workplace moving so slowly/

The Secondary Questions are as follows

• What measures can improve the rate of implementation of diversity in the workplace?
• Should initiatives for achieving diversity become compulsory and involve achievement of targets?

b. Methodology

The methodology for this assignment consists of distinct functions, which include detailed study of primary and secondary sources in the Literature Review, framing of appropriate research questions, deciding on the mode of conducting primary research, defining and quantifying of respondents for primary research, the formulating of the research procedure, introduction and maintenance of precautions to ensure ethicality during the process of obtaining information, and the ensuring of standard validation procedures, apart from recording findings, arriving at conclusions and preparing the final report.

Primary research, for this assignment, will consist of a series of steps that will include (a) deciding upon the appropriate research methodology, (b) laying down the research procedure, (c) selection of researchers, (d) localising respondents for carrying out research (e) preparing the questionnaires (f) carrying out the interviews, (g) interpreting responses and arriving at findings and lastly (h) arriving at conclusions and preparing the final report

c. Choice of Primary Research Methodology

The choice of the basic methodology for primary research will depend upon the nature of the assignment and the suitability of different available methods. Primary research strategies involve a choice between Quantitative and Qualitative methodologies for obtaining and analysing data. Both these methods use specialised techniques and require detailed planning, preparation, knowledge of methods of data collection, ability to analyse collected data, both statistically and interpretatively, validate results and arrive at appropriate conclusions. Researchers often choose to adopt one of the two methods; sometimes they use a mix of both, concurrently or sequentially. “Mixing methods has been the subject of considerable debate in the social sciences and has variously been regarded as anathema, as the outcome of everyday pragmatic research decisions, or as appropriate in some situations but needing to be carefully justified.” (Darlington & Scott, 2002)

The various research methodologies need examination in detail and assessment in light of the information provided in the Literature Review, for a decision on the more appropriate methodology for the subject assignment. This is also because methods of data collection and choice of analytical strategies support the execution of research and, in the first instance, depend upon the objectives and reasons for the research.

Quantitative research is an inquiry into an identified problem, and based on testing theories. The goal of quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive generalizations of a theory holds true. It refers to the use of measurement in the analysis of behaviours and attitudes. Statistical analysis is the most convenient way of arriving at a logical conclusion in situations that involve the behavioural analysis of large numbers of people. Quantitative analysis involves two other major tasks that influence the quality of the final analysis, namely data collection and the final validation of results. Data collection can happen directly through the use of questionnaires and surveys, from opinion polls or from pre-existing material, like results of other research efforts or official statistics. (Harrison, 2001)

The use of quantitative methods in marketing and operational research is widespread and practically indispensable when information about large samples is required in tight time spans. Many researchers feel that quantitative research forms the core of social research because measurements are scientific, rigorous, and representative and the underlying principle of quantitative research assumes that results are an accurate representation of the population under study.

Concentrating only on quantitative strategies does however subject the research assignment to certain limitations. Standardisation of questionnaires and interviewing techniques tend to limit the research to testing of predetermined hypotheses. The design of questionnaires intends respondents to react to specific question lists created by the researcher, thus eliminating potentially interesting, spontaneous or tangential responses. Perhaps the greatest limitation of quantitative research lies in the fact that individuals with limited experience can perceive the results from poorly conducted studies to be irrefutable truth. Charts, graphs, and tables have empirical implications, and it is only natural to accept them as fact. However, information occasionally represented as truth can be completely unreliable. Any number of factors can affect the legitimacy of quantitative research. Questionnaires can contain leading questions, data collection methods can introduce bias and small sample sizes may render findings insignificant. It is also possible that an analyst will present only those findings that support an unseen agenda.

In the subject assignment, the research, which encompasses an investigation into the various reasons that could be responsible for the slow progress of diversity initiatives in the workplace, will be more suited to investigating a few deeply involved people, in detail, rather than taking an opinion survey with large numbers of respondents. Large numbers could have possibly served the purpose better if the assignment involved issues like gauging the extent of diversity achieved. In the subject case, review of published material leads to the conclusion that the spread of diversity in the workplace has been rather limited and research questions therefore focus on the reasons behind the rather slow movement of such initiatives. Rather than focussing upon objective measurement, the study of published material and the research questions deal with issues like “how”, “why”, and “what”, when pertaining to the problems related to diversity in the workplace. In such a situation, the use of quantitative methods is clearly not suitable and needs elimination.

Qualitative research techniques need understanding for their applicability to be gauged for this assignment.

Qualitative research has an important role to play in understanding this world and in complementing other forms of knowledge. Qualitative research methods have descended from several disciplines and belong to twenty or more diverse traditions (Miller (Darlington & Scott, 2002,)

Qualitative techniques involve the understanding of human behaviour in depth as well as the reasons that govern such behaviour i.e, the how and why behind attitudes and consequent decision-making. Samples are therefore small and focussed and techniques incorporate skilled and extensive interviewing of respondents, observation, and examination of documents.

Qualitative research analyses political behaviour and attitudes, which it is not possible or desirable to quantify. Put another way, qualitative research 'tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve "depth" rather than "breadth"' (Blaxter et al., 1996, p. 60). It is generally accepted, therefore, that qualitative research allows for greater expression and insight. (Harrison, 2001)

The major difference between qualitative and quantitative research techniques lies in much greater involvement and the elimination of detachment on the part of qualitative methods. Quantitative research techniques, which deal with large samples and surveys, have to necessarily depend upon standardised methods that do not allow for individualisation. Numerous techniques, which include participant observation, ethnography, ethno methodology, dramaturgical interviewing, case studies, unobtrusive observation, content analysis and historiography, make up the tools used for application of quantitative methodology. There are very few systematic rules in this system and the objective is to arrive at the real reasons behind what people actually do, as opposed to what they say, (like for example, in surveys).

Qualitative research produces in depth and comprehensive information. The researcher uses subjective data, and observes respondents and participants, to describe the variables, as well as the interaction between the variables, in order to obtain a greater understanding of the matter under study. However, this very subjectivity in approach leads to difficulties in establishing reliability as in depth recording requirements necessitates the need of small samples. The quality of research depends largely upon the sincerity, objectivity, and freedom from bias, of the researcher or interviewer. It is not difficult to doctor reactions to meet hidden agendas, and qualitative results thus need stringent validation. (Bryman, 1992) It becomes quite evident from an examination of qualitative research techniques that their application is bound to be much more time expansive than those used in quantitative research, and thus suit small sample populations that need detailed investigation. Qualitative research is also ideal for use in situations that need in depth information from individuals on a variety of issues that combine to provide a total picture. Straightforward responses to questions similar to those asked during surveys will lead to misleading information and invalid data. A perusal of the Literature Review also leads to conclusions that many of the issues involved are multi dimensional, interpretative and could change with time. An examination of the Literature Review, the distinct requirements of this dissertation and the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative methodologies indicate that use of qualitative methods will serve the purpose of research much better. This is primarily because the research will need in depth information from individuals, rather than straightforward responses from a large respondent base.

It however needs reiteration that, as detailed earlier, the use of qualitative techniques is complex and difficult. The adoption of qualitative methods for this assignment will thus need careful conceptualising and planning before the commencement of the study. Shortcomings in the methodology used could well lead to some invalidation of the results of the research.

d. Factors to be considered in formulating Research Procedure

The success of the research assignment will depend upon a number of aspects, namely the proper selection of respondents for in depth interviewing, carefully considered framing of questionnaires, proper conduct of interviews, accurate and painstaking data collection, and the logical interpretation of responses. The data needs of qualitative research are very different from those required for quantitative research assignments. Methods of data collection are strikingly dissimilar and focus on functioning with individuals or small groups. (Darlington & Scott, 2002)

Qualitative research requires significant time, both for in-depth interviewing and for interaction with focus groups. Experienced researchers know that it is not very easy to find good focus groups and the effort requires both time and sincerity. Sharing in qualitative research needs substantial time and energy and, also the willingness to expose private and deeply personal experiences. Researchers, thus, often have to accept as many participants as they can get, within the constraints of time and other resources. (Hennebry, 2004) This could also harm the quality of response and the validity of questions. It would thus be more advisable to depend upon interviews with carefully selected respondents for this exercise.

It was appropriate, for the purpose of this exercise, to approach three senior managers in the UK with significant experience in the private or public sector. Respondents chosen consisted of two whites and an Asian. All of them are British citizens, with one of the white respondents being female. The purpose of the research, along with the benefits expected to accrue from the exercise, were conveyed to the respondents, as well as details of the procedures adopted for maintenance of ethicality and guarantees of total confidentiality of information discussed.

It is important to structure the contents of the questionnaire and rehearse the flow of questions before attempting interviews. There are three ingredients to a well-designed questionnaire.

• A clear understanding of the research objectives and the product, concept, or issue
• An ability to write clear, intelligent questions using the language common to the survey’s respondents
• Attention to the questionnaire’s flow & logic so respondents are only