Prevalence of surveillance cameras.

Screen 1: Introduction

Exercise type: Input/Information

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In this module you will learn how to:

Ø Structure your report

Ø provide references to existing research in a literature review

Ø express the necessity to do further research

Ø describe a process chronologically

Ø use nominalizations to refer to concepts and things

Ø represent findings through references to tables and figures

Screen 2a: The Nature of Reports I: Purpose and Structure

Exercise type: Input

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Academic reports

Academic reports are records of completed research. On the one hand, they document the specific procedure applied as well as the findings obtained. On the other hand, they explain the rationale for conducting the research and assess its implications. Thus, a report typically consists of four parts as illustrated by the model text: an introduction relating the work to the research field at large; a methods section presenting what exactly was done; a results section describing the outcome of the research; and a discussion providing a concluding evaluation.

Written reports are a particularly frequent genre in scientific and technical fields but are also quite common in the social sciences. The most common type is that of a laboratory report, which includes the description of one or more experiments. Additionally, reports can document a field survey, a statistical analysis, an experimental simulation, or some other type of academic investigation.

Screen 2b: The Nature of Reports II: General Characterization of the Four Parts

Exercise type: Input

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The four parts of a report

The four parts of a report present the research conducted from different points of view. The more general contextualizations of the introduction are followed by specific descriptions of the way the investigation was carried out. Then, the data or other information collected is examined before being discussed in light of the general research context.

As the fictitious study of speed enforcement cameras shows, most sections of a report tend to be in the present tense. However descriptions of methods are, generally speaking, written in the past tense because the reference here is to actions performed prior to the writing of the report. Methods sections are also the only ones where the passive predominates. As it is usually less important who conducted the specific steps of an experiment or survey, the focus is on the events rather than the people responsible for these events.

In general, the four sections can be characterized as follows:

Screen 2c: The Nature of Reports III: Parts of an Introduction

Exercise type: Input

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The introduction section of a report

The introduction needs to be carefully crafted to demonstrate both an in-depth knowledge of what is going on in the general research area and an acute awareness of what could—and should—still be done. In other words, an introduction first has to outline the context of the report's topic and provide an overview of the existing research in the field. In the case of the report on speed enforcement cameras, this means that general information on the use of surveillance cameras is followed by a literature review outlining how their effectiveness for controlling traffic has previously been studied. This literature review then leads to the detection of a methodological gap. Based on this, specific research on the attitude of drivers is finally suggested in order to fill that gap. Thus, an introduction usually ends with a suggestion of the nature and purpose of the work and, in some cases, the value and structure of the report.

Screen 2d: The Nature of Reports IV: Descriptions of Methods and Results

Exercise type: Input

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The methods and results section

The methods section should provide as much detail of the procedures applied during the research as would be necessary to repeat the study. It describes both the materials and the analytical tools that were used and how exactly the research was conducted. For instance, the mini-report on speed enforcement cameras mentions who was interviewed, which questions were asked and how the answers were processed.

The results section has a twofold purpose. On the one hand, the outcome of the research is presented in writing as well as in the form of tables and / or graphs, and, on the other hand, this presentation is accompanied by various types of commentary. Such commentary usually focuses on the interpretation and explanation of the findings. However, it can also include, as in the case of the traffic control study, a justification of the methods and comparisons with the data of other writers.

Screen 2e: The Nature of Reports V: Discussions of the Outcome

Exercise type: Input

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The discussion section

The discussion section allows for the most variety in length, focus, and style. As it leads back to the larger issues introduced at the beginning of the report, it is supposed to not just summarize the results but to explore their broader meaning as well. Thus, it can outline the implications for the research field either by calling for further research or by recommending practical action. The discussion can, however, also be used to evaluate the research project by pointing at methodological shortcomings, difficulties in interpreting data, conceptional limitations, or any other problems or errors. The restricted scope of the speed enforcement study, for example, is highlighted to point out the limited value of the results, which, in turn, raises the need for further research in the field.

Pop-up Text for Screens 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, and 2e: "The Impact of Speed Enforcement Cameras: A Case Study of the Attitudes of Commuters in North London"

Exercise type: Input

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Introduction

One of the most obvious characteristics of present-day London is the prevalence of surveillance cameras. In fact, London has been called the "surveillance capital of the world" (Barr, 2004). While many of these cameras are used for crime prevention, others are supposed to detect traffic violations such as speeding and red-light running. Yet how effective speed enforcement cameras really are, is disputed. While Corbett and Simon (1999) have argued that they influence only certain types of drivers, Mountain et al. (2004 and 2005), for instance, have maintained that they help reducinge the average rate of personal injury accidents—a claim supported by the findings of Pérez et al. (2007). Most of the existing studies have, however, focused on the actual number of traffic accidents before and after the installation of speed cameras, rather than the reactions of drivers in general. And, even though Corbett and Simon did study such reactions, they limited their investigation to asking how the risk of detection caused compliance with speed limits. Previous research has, thus, failed to consider the overall impact of the presence of speed cameras on the general performance of motorists. The purpose of this report is, therefore, to assess the psychological effects of speed control cameras in order to better evaluate their influence on the behaviour of regular drivers.

Methods

A recently installed speed enforcement camera on a 30 mph stretch of the North Circular Road in Finchley, North London, was chosen as the study case. This area is dominated by commuter traffic so that the attitudes of the same drivers before and after the installation of the camera could be investigated. For this purpose, one thousand representative drivers of all ages who regularly pass the speed camera were first selected using the quota sampling method. These informants were then extensively interviewed with questions focusing on their driving habits in general and the perceived influence of the new speed control measures in particular. Finally, the answers were statistically analyzed and checked against actual observations of driving patterns.

Results

Most of the interviewed drivers reported that the installation of the speed camera had affected their driving behaviour. This does, however, not imply that all of these motorists drive more safely. As Table 1 indicates, the majority of the interviewees feels rather distracted by the camera and, thus, focuses more on complying with the speed limit than on observing its driving in general. The attention of a significant percentage of middle-aged and older drivers, in particular, is diverted away from a comprehensive perception of other aspects of the traffic. While younger drivers are more likely to not feel negatively affected by the presence of the camera, this investigation of drivers' attitudes towards the existence of speed cameras, nonetheless, reveals surprising behaviour patterns that are not taken into account by the studies of Mountain et al. (2004 and 2005) or Pérez (2007).

Table 1. Reactions to the speed enforcement camera according to age groups.

Discussion

As the investigation of the psychological effects of the speed camera in Finchley has shown, the impact of speed control measures cannot be reduced to a reduction of traffic accidents. Rather, it seems that, under certain circumstances, such measures may influence drivers in complex ways. Therefore, the installation of speed cameras should be considered carefully in order to avoid reverse effects. As this recommendation is, however, based on the study of only one particular case, further research on how speed cameras influence drivers' attitudes in different contexts is needed to test in how far the results of this report can be generalized.

Note

While this report is based on real situations and references, its set-up and results are entirely ficticious

Screen 3: What is a Report?

Exercise type: Multiple Choice

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Which of the following research topics is likely to be documented in the form of a report?

¨ The idea of democracy in Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. [No]

¨ Testing the adaptability of large-scale robots in simulated interactions with humans. [Yes]

¨ New verse forms as expressions of bourgeois sensibility in early modern England. [No]

¨ An evaluation of the implementation of proposals for prison reform in contemporary Canada. [Yes]

¨ The dynamics of cacao agroforestry in the vicinity of the Lore Lindu National Park in central Sulawesi. [Yes]

¨ The changing image of Nelson Mandela in European and North American newspapers, 1990-2005. [No]

¨ Assessing the elasticity of various materials used in supporting beams of high-rise buildings. [Yes]

¨ The impact of Tata Motor's Nano car on the mobility of the Indian middle class. [Yes]

Screen 4: Sections of Reports

Exercise type: Drag to Container

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Please drag the following potential elements of a report to the section in which they are most likely to be covered.

Screen 5a: Introducing Reports I: References to Existing Research

Exercise type: Input

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Referencing existing research

In order to contextualize a report, its introduction contains an overview of previous research in the form of a literature review. This involves a series of references to both the research areas and the specific ideas or approaches of the existing literature. Depending on the respective function of the reference, various patterns of citation can be used.

References to the general topic or the area of inquiry developed in a particular study appear in two basic types:

Ø Statements that focus on single studies and the activity of the researcher(s) use the past tense (active or passive):
Mountain et al. (2005) investigated the impact of various speed management schemes.
Various types of speed management schemes were compared by Mountain et al. (2005).

Ø Statements that focus on an area of inquiry use the present perfect (active or passive):
There have been several studies of the effectiveness of speed cameras (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).
The effectiveness of speed control measures has been widely researched (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

Screen 5b: Introducing Reports II: References to Existing Research (cont.)

Exercise type: Input

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References to specific points or ideas stated in a particular study follow are usually paraphrased:

As Mountain et al. (2005) have shown, the various speed management schemes show remarkably few differences (753).
According to Mountain et al. (2005), the existing safety studies are not at all straightforward (743).

References to research with similar findings can be generalised in the present tense. Here, the sources are listed at the end of the sentence in parentheses:

The effects of speed cameras on driving patterns are very complex (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

Speed management appears to be an intricate issue (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

Screen 5c: Introducing Reports III: Showing the Need for Further Research

Exercise type: Input

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Once the existing literature is reviewed, it is important to show the need for further research. For this purpose, the following strategies can be employed:

Ø Arguing that there is a gap in the previous research
The methods applied by Mountain et al. (2005) and Pérez et al. (2007) fail to recognize the need for personal testimonies.

Ø Establishing a position that contrasts with that of an existing study
Pérez et al. (2007) have focused on the number of road collisions, as opposed to the driving habits of individuals.

Ø Claiming errors in previous research
While Mountain et al. (2005) claim that the different speed control schemes have similar effects (253), this does not sound plausible when drivers' reactions to these schemes are considered.

Ø Raising a question about the state of research
The question remains whether the investigated approaches to traffic control have similar effects in different contexts.

Ø Suggesting the further development of an existing study in some way
This study applies the approach of Pérez et al. (2007) to non-urban roads with a higher speed limit.

Screen 6: Referencing

Exercise type: Missing Words

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To develop proper citations, please move each of the verb forms in the boxes to the appropriate place in the sentences below.

[have been] - [have shown] - [has been investigated] - [reduce] - [remains] - [seems] - [studied] - [was analysed]

According to Pérez et al. (2007), speed cameras effectively [reduce] the number of road collisions (1636).

Pérez et al. (2007) [studied] the impact of speed cameras in an urban setting.

The impact of speed surveillance [has been investigated] extensively (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

Traffic control [seems] to be a complex problem (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

As Pérez et al. (2007) [have shown], "the protective effect of speed cameras is evident" (753).

There [have been] a series of studies on traffic control measures (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

The use of speed enforcement cameras [remains] a contentious issue (Mountain et al., 2005; Pérez et al., 2007).

The impact of speed cameras in an urban environment [was analysed] (analyse) by Pérez et al. (2007).

Screen 7: Emphasizing a Research Gap

Exercise type: Connect It

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The following statements point at research gaps in different ways. Please make complete sentences by matching each of the phrases on the left with the rest of the sentence on the right.

Screen 8: Emphasizing the Need for Further Research

Exercise type: Unscramble Words

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Please rearrange the phrases in the following five sentences to form statements that clearly indicate a need for further research.

1. [Mountain et al. (2005)] / [have underestimated] / [the impact] / [of seasonal stress] / [on the attitude] / [of drivers] / [towards speed cameras].

2. [The research] / [by Pérez et al. (2007)] / [has emphasized] / [the number] / [of injuries], [rather than] / [the behaviour] / [of motorists].

3. [It seems reasonable] / [to ask] / [how] / [speed management schemes] / [are perceived] / [by the population].

4. [Previous research] / [does not address] / [the issue of] / [the road performance] [of young drivers].

5. [Although] / [considerable research] / [has been devoted] / [to the effect] / [of speed cameras] / [on accident rates], / [rather less attention] / [has been paid] / [to the drivers' attitude] / [towards traffic control measures].

Screen 9a: Describing Methods I: Chronology

Exercise type: Input

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Describing methods

When describing a method, it is important to present its individual steps in the right order. Following an introductory statement that characterizes the method in general terms, each of these steps should, therefore, be arranged chronologically. Various cohesive markers can be used for this purpose. These include:

Ø markers which number the individual stages for easier reference:

First (of all) / Firstly

Second / Secondly
Third / Thirdly

Last / Finally

Ø markers which highlight the sequence of events:

Next
Then
After that
Based on this

Screen 9b: Describing Methods II: Nominalisations

Exercise type: Input

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An important feature of methods (as well as results) sections is the tendency to focus on general concepts rather than specific actions or events. This means that the important information is predominantly expressed as a noun or in a noun phrase. Verbal expressions are, therefore, often nominalised (changed into nouns), as in the following example:

This research investigated the extent to which speed cameras influenced how drivers behaved when they were stressed.

This investigation was conducted to determine the influence of speed cameras on drivers' behaviour under conditions of stress.

The first version emphasizes a series of events expressed through verbs. The second version uses the same ideas but expresses them through nouns. The effect of such nominalisations is to make the writing more dense and abstract and, thus, more academic.

Screen 10: Describing a Process

Exercise type: Unscramble Sentences

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Keeping in mind the criteria for organizing a method description chronologically, please rearrange the following six sentences to form a clear and coherent text.

[In order to obtain a representative feedback from drivers regarding the effect of speed enforcement cameras, interviewees were selected according to the quota sampling method.] - first

[First of all, for the purpose of this study, gender and age groups were identified as relevant subsets of the population.] - second

[After that, the actual representation of the identified subsets in the entire population was calculated.] - third

[Next, the required number of interviewees from each subset was determined.] - fourth

[Based on this, appropriate subjects were chosen for the interviews.] - fifth

[Finally, the interviews were conducted, using the same questionnaire for all of them.] - sixth

Screen 11: Using Nominalisations

Exercise type: Gap Fill

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In the text below, please fill in the gaps with a nominalised form of one of the following verbs.

[allocate] - [choose] - [care] - [coordinate] - [create] - [distribute] - [enforce] - [investigate] - [prefer] - [reduce] - [rely] - [select]

For the [investigation] of drivers' attitudes towards speed [enforcement] cameras, the quota sampling method was given [preference] because it allowed for the most valid [selection] of representative subjects. However, in order to insure the survey's [reliability], some other aspects had to be considered as well: as the [reduction] of sampling errors was a prime concern, the [choice] of subjects had to follow a precise plan. At the same time, the [creation] of the questionnaire was carried out with utmost [care] to avoid any ambiguities during the interviewing process. Finally, the [distribution] of the questionnaires and the [allocation] of interviewees among the interviewers, required careful [coordination].

Screen 12a: Presenting and Discussing Results I: Use of Verbs

Exercise type: Input

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In a report, the exact results of the research are usually presented in the form of tables and line or bar graphs. The descriptive text then refers to these and generalizes their data. In order to establish such a reference, the text needs to be linked to the table or figure in one of two ways (either of which can be used with active or passive constructions):

Ø The reference can merely indicate the type of research conducted:

Table 1 shows the annual traffic accident change.

The distribution of accidents by age group is shown in Figure 2.

Verbs used in such constructions include: demonstrate, depict, display, illustrate, indicate, present, provide.

Ø The reference can focus on the findings themselves:

Table 3 shows that speed cameras are less effective in controlling traffic than other measures.
As shown in Figure 4, the impact of speed cameras is highest in urban areas.

Verbs used in such constructions include: demonstrate, illustrate, imply, indicate, reveal, suggest.

Screen 12b: Presenting and Discussing Results II: Qualifying a Statement

Exercise type: Input

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Qualifying statements when discussing results

The broader discussion of the results and their implications often includes rather generalized statements. Based on good judgement, such statements should be expressed quite carefully, using qualifying or hedging to "soften" a point.

Using an all too general claim such as

Speed cameras prevent accidents.

as example, four basic types of qualifications can be distinguished:

Ø The use of specific expressions can weaken a generalization:

Under certain circumstances, speed cameras prevent accidents.

Ø The modal verbs may or might replace certainty with probability:

Speed cameras may prevent accidents.

Ø References to external sources create distance from the general claim:

According to scientific studies, speed cameras prevent accidents.

Ø A weaker verb softens the inevitability of the claim:

Speed cameras reduce the number of accidents.

Speed cameras tend to prevent accidents.

Screen 13: Qualifications

Exercise type: Gap Fill with Drop Down

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For each of the gaps in the text below, please choose the expression from the drop-down menu that best qualifies the respective statement.

Speed enforcement cameras are [often considered / by all means]* a good measure to increase traffic safety. [According to Mountain et al. (2005) / As a matter of fact], they [help reduce / reduce] the number of traffic accidents. However, [as Corbett and Simon (1999) have argued / as everyone knows], this [might be / is] true only for [certain types / all] of drivers. They distinguish between the so-called "conformers" who [usually / always] comply with speed limits anyway, the "deterred" who [tend to / will] reduce their speed only to avoid detection, the "manipulators" who [may / definitely] slow down on approach of a camera, and the "defiers" who, [in most circumstances / definitely], continue driving above the speed limit. (see Corbett and Simon, 1999, [vi]). Thus, it can be said that speed cameras only [support / guarantee] traffic safety.

* Two choices are given for each gap. The correct choice is the first, underlined one.

Screen 14: Conclusion

Exercise type: Input/Information

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In this module you have learned how to:

Ø recognize research reports

Ø structure your report

Ø provide references to existing research in a literature review

Ø express the need for doing further research

Ø describe a procedure chronologically

Ø use nominalizations to focus on concepts and things

Ø represent findings through references to tables and figures

Ø express yourself carefully