The history of violence in Latin America

In their novels, the Boom novelists, especially Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Mario Vargas Llosa, Julio Cortazar, have most poignantly portrayed the history of violence in Latin America. Their writings offer significant narratives in the discourse on violence and show how the Latin American society is one where patriarchy has always ruled the roost. The Latin American culture and society has been characterised by violence and gross injustice.

Machismo is an integral part of this culture, which places excessive emphasis on male pride and aggressiveness, where the Latino male exerts dominance over social inferiors, especially women, and demand complete subservience and submission from them. It is also associated with virility, courage and strength. As part of this deeply rooted cultural belief, men are obliged to uphold their dominance over women. Thus, machismo plays a part in upholding male reputation in the Latin American society. Men have the freedom to engage in relationships outside marriage and to exercise their sexual independence. In the Latin American sexual culture, women have a punitive attitude to their sexuality and they are taught from an early stage that they must not possess any sexual desires. Machismo has long been associated with attributes like bravery, strength and wisdom, those that all men must aspire for. However, it began to garner criticism towards the beginning of the twentieth century from non-Latino cultures, and during the feminist movements of the 60s and 70s, machismo was associated with male aggression and violence.

The representation of men and women in Gabriel Garcia Marquez's 1981 work Chronicle of a Death Foretold shows us the myriad ways in which the patriarchal order can be constructed and constituted in the Latin American experience. Marquez's characterisation includes both the exploitation and subjugation of women at the hands of the men and also the internalization of this ideology by women to ensure their subservience. Marquez also reveals how women subvert this ideology and resist this oppressive regime. In the novel, the protagonist tries to extract some information on a murder that took place twenty seven years ago by donning the role of a chronicler. In order to fully comprehend the Latin American situation in the text, it is important to understand the social and political upheavals amidst which Marquez started writing. He emerged as a writer during one of the most turbulent periods in Colombian history. While in Europe, he became associated with the Latin American Boom during the 1960s, which brought Latin American fiction widespread acclaim. It was a period of hope and cultural innovation in Latin America and the Cuban revolution contributed significantly to the formation of this movement. One Hundred Years of Solitude skyrocketed him to international fame and recognition. Marquez explored the postcolonial histories and cultures of Latin America in his fiction. Political discontent, national instability, Colombian myth and history have all considerably shaped his ideology and consequently, his fiction. He embarked on a journalistic career where he published articles related to the military regime in Argentina. This is Marquez's first novel to draw attention to his training as a journalist. Marquez was always fascinated with the relationship between literature and journalism and continued to write for journals. It was after his brief stint at journalism that he published Chronicle of a Death Foretold, which was based on a newspaper article on honour and killing in Columbia.

The novel powerfully depicts the social and cultural setting of Latin America. Marquez accommodates the conventional values such as pride and honour, which plays a major role in the lives of the characters in the novel. The fact that he was able to infuse the novel with these reflects his deep understanding and empathy for the people who are forced to abide by these yardsticks. Violence has become a predominant aspect of the lived reality of these people who have been marred by centuries of exploitation and political extortion. A major chunk of their history is a narrative of plunder and pillage. Chronicle of a Death Foretold is set in the 1950s in a small town in Colombia. Columbia itself has witnessed severe civil strife and ruthless state repression. The setting of the novel is fictitious, making it possible for Marquez to unleash his imagination and narrate a story that can be related to the Latin American society of that time. The very title of the novel foregrounds a preoccupation with violence and the way it affects the community’s conscience. It also places violence in a larger social and historical context. Along with mirroring colonial oppression, the novel also portrays the ubiquitous bondage of patriarchy, which in turn manifests itself in violence.

The re-enactment of the murder of Santiago Nasar is not just an individual tragedy, but is the failure of the entire community to take any action against the imminent crime. The town’s nonchalant response to the totally avertable crime is mind numbing. Every character in the novel tries to justify his failure at taking any action. These acts of justification do not seem to complement each other, but rather it contradicts one another, only producing a feeling of absolute senselessness at the end. Santiago’s murder becomes a spectacle, played and replayed by the people of the town. All the characters in the novel helps reconstruct the events of that fateful day using their memory and thus admits to being an audience to this spectacle. By extension, all the characters in the novel become participants in the act of crime.

Before culminating in the murder, a mood of sustained public festivity is created through the marriage revelries of the night before and the celebrations associated with the arrival of the bishop. The wedding and the brouhaha surrounding the bishop’s arrival are pointless and hollow and acts as a precursor to the same absurdity that characterises the murder. It thus becomes a part of the act of the exposure of the violence embedded in the culture of Latin American society. Santiago is murdered on the street, with all the townspeople participating in the chaos and confusion at the culmination of the act. The killing is brutal, to say the least, with Santiago Nasar being continuously stabbed, even long after his death. Almost two decades later, the father tells the narrator, “It was as if we killed him all over again after he was dead.”His body becomes the site of revenge not only for Angela Vicario’s lost honour, but also becomes an expression for the accumulated social tension and consternation. Nasar’s intestines are literally spilled, resonating Victoria Guzman’s desire to see him killed for the violence meted out by him. It has to be noted that no one tries to stop the Vicario twins from committing the crime, even though they themselves are unsure of killing Santiago Nasar and are waiting for someone to persuade them to not harm Nasar. Even Cristo Bedoya and Clotilde Armenta’s meagre efforts fade into oblivion in the face of the society’s overwhelming failure to act. Santiago’s mother too contributes to creating the situation that enables the murder to take place. The entire society stands numb, “frightened by its own crime”. The Church and the state do not take any decision or action either, failing in their roles as the custodians of order and justice. They too, play a part in the display of gore and violence.

After the killing is over, the second act of violence comes in the form of the autopsy. The people of the town continue to be spectators with the mayor and the priest taking up the positions of the Vicario brothers. While the priest absolves himself of any role in the murder, the mayor, a former troop commander, does not have the capability of taking any crucial decision related to the matter. The state as well as religion fails to offer any support system to the people in a crisis like this and are revealed as further worsening the situation. The fleeting appearance of the bishop comes across as a figure of discontentment and superficiality. His appearance also fuels a feeling a distrust and disinterest among the people, including Nasar’s mother, who is clever enough not to fall for the bishop’s rhetoric. It becomes clear that Catholicism is the religion of the colonizers and that the role of religion in the colonial agenda is in gaining the trust of the colonized for their own exploitation. The unnecessary brouhaha surrounding the arrival of the priest also prevents Cristo Bedoya from finding Nasar. It serves as an excuse for many to not interfere in the murder and thus religion is seen as having been complicit in the murder of Santiago Nasar.

The guilt of the townspeople is revealed as they obsess over the death of Santiago Nasar and about their role in his death. “For years we couldn’t talk about anything else. Our daily conduct, dominated then by so many linear habits, had suddenly begun to spin around a single common anxiety” (96). Their testimonies are an attempt to absolve themselves of the guilt and to show that any attempt at stopping the Vicario twins would have been futile. They “consoled themselves with the pretext that affairs of honor are sacred monopolies, giving access only to those who are part of the drama” (97).” Everybody in the town was aware of such a plot, but not many even attempt to warn Nasar about it. Those with a guilt ridden conscience are unable to come to terms with the murder and start doing bizarre things. Santiago Nasar’s mother, Placida Linero, spends the rest of the days in a hammock , from where she last saw her son, “trying to put the broken mirror of memory back together from so many shattered shards” (6). Hortensia Baute, whose only involvement in the crime was of having seen two bloody knives, was so affected by the crime that, “she fell into a penitential crisis, and one day, unable to stand it any longer, she ran out naked into the street.” (Chronicle of a Death Foretold, 97). Santiago Nasar’s fiancée, Flore Miguel runs away, “out of spite with a lieutenant of the border patrol, who prostituted her among the rubber workers on the Vichada.” On the other hand, Angela Vicario, whose loss of virginity led to Nasar’s murder, appears remorseless. Her statements and actions seem ambiguous and one is left wondering if Nasar indeed was her perpetrator. She, unlike women her age, do not try to fake her virginity and accepts her fate willingly.

Santiago Nasar’s murderers, Pedro and Pablo Vicario refuse to confess to a priest, but are pardoned after they fall ill in the jail. The illnesses appear to be symptomatic of their sins. The brother who was most forceful of committing the crime meets his end after he runs off to join the army, while the brother who was initially apprehensive and hesitant about killing Nasar later becomes a goldsmith and gets married. It seems as though the two main people who are responsible for the murder are finally absolved of their crime in one way or another, whereas the people of the town are left to wallow in the misery of their guilt, for not having taken any action to stop the crime: “For years we couldn’t talk about anything else…the cocks of dawn would catch us trying to give order to the chain of many chance events that had made absurdity possible…” (CDF, )

As we have seen before, the Latin American society was ravaged by years of brutal oppression and violence. It has permeated their landscape to such an extent that it has become internalised and even institutionalized to a large extent. If we move beyond the boundaries of the text and move further back and beyond this single incident in order to understand the deeper ramifications of such an incident as violence has become a part of their lived reality.

Machismo

The perpetration of violence in the society becomes an expression for the perpetuation of the ideology of machismo. This is manifested in the form of the treatment meted out to women and in the familial setting, where women are expected to be coy and submissive. There were double standards of morality for men and women and the association of honour and shame to women’s sexuality was strongly held on to. The men were held responsible for ensuring that the women of their families lead an honourable life, uncorrupted by the desires of the flesh.

In Chronicle of a Death Foretold, there is a strong emphasis on the theme of machismo and it becomes central to the plot of the novel. This deeply rooted belief in machismo is evident in the emphasis laid on male pride and the dos and don’ts of one’s sexual behaviour. The theme of machismo is here interrelated to the issue of moral responsibility. In the novel,

Santiago Nasar is presented as a dominant male of his family. He is forced by his father to abandon his studies so that he can take control of the family ranch. He, like his father, is a “sparrow hawk” and this has been an attitude passed across a generation. Ibrahim Nasar, Santiago Nasar’s father had taught him how to tame high-flying birds. Both of them also learnt to use their servants for sexual exploitation, not heeding the consent of these young girls. Bayardo San Roman’s character is tailored to encompass all the traits of a strong male. He is described as being highly fit and strong and his arrival in town attracts the attention of all the women in the town. He is portrayed as having “the waist of a novice bullfighter, gold eyes, and a skin slowly roasted by saltpetre”. Their reaction can be studied to understand what code of male behaviour is acceptable and desirable. His act of returning Angela Vicario when he realizes that she is not a virgin is acceptable to their societal codes of behaviour. It is with a manner of great male pride that he commits such an act. The presence of the bordello in town is justified too. Men have the freedom to frequent this place and use women as mere objects of desire. They can express their sexual needs in any way they want to. While Bayardo returns Angela Vicario for having lost her virginity, his act of going to women who wilfully let men take away their virginity, is considered totally acceptable in this patriarchal setup. According to an old Spanish folk tradition, only the blood of the perpetrator can wash off the blood of virginity lost outside marriage. In the Colombian society of the 1950s and 60s, the act of the Vicario brothers is considered a moral duty as a woman’s loss of virginity led to not only the loss of her honour, but also of the whole family. Since this loss of honour could be regained only by avenging the perpetrator, the townsfolk come across as mere spectators for this morally and socially acceptable deed. The Vicario brothers display their machismo is strongly upholding the long-held tradition of preserving the honour of their family. Since the woman’s father is blind, the responsibility of restoring the family’s honour falls on the brothers’ shoulders. The necessity to carry out the murder is a result of this ingrained belief of machismo and they see “no way out of this” (Marquez, 230), but this. Their abusive behaviour after they roam about the streets, fully drunk, is also seen as being characteristic of their machismo.

The very first depiction of Bayardo and Angela after marriage is crucial to understanding the way marriage is depicted in the text. “Angela Vicario was in the shadows, so she only saw her when Bayardo San Roman grabbed her by the arm and brought her into the light. Her satin dress was in shreds…” Angela has very clearly been subject to physical abuse before she was returned to her family. Bayardo’s gestures signifying male aggression can be seen in the way he grabs her and pulls her. This is followed by a severe physical assault by Amgela’s mother, who sees Bayardo’s actions as morally acceptable. “The only thing I can remember is that she was holding me by the hair with one hand and beating me with the other with such rage that I thought she was going to kill me.”

The women of the Vicario family were “raised to suffer”. The family thus becomes an instrument of oppression and an institution for keeping women silenced and subservient. A different kind of atmosphere is present in the Nasar family, where Victoria Guzman was used and disposed by Santiago’s father, Ibrahim Nasar. Her daughter, Divina Flor is considered the sexual property of Santiago Nasar. It appears as if this is a tradition of sexual exploitation passed through generations. Santiago imposes himself on Divina and exploits her powerless position. Victoria Guzman’s indifference and hostile behaviour and her decision to not intervene in the murder plot can be seen as a manifestation of years of accumulated anger and frustration. Their sexual exploitation also opens us the issue of violence against the working classes. Had Santiago been a member of the working class, his death may not have received the kind of attention it has received otherwise. This distinction has been interwoven into the social milieu of the town. Santiago Nasar’s social stature is emphasized through a detailed description of his collection of guns, which in themselves display a statement of power. Embodying the class based authority and superiority depicted in the novel is Bayardo, who being an outsider is an example of the wealthy bourgeoisie coming from a foreign socio-cultural order. His political affiliations and wealth align him with the colonial interests. His predatory-like hunt for a wife, with an absolute disregard for the woman’s choice is a result of his confidence in his dominant class position.

With Bayardo’s arrival, the community is introduced to another kind of aggression and violence that comes with the accumulation of capital. This is exemplified in the case of the widower, Xius, whose house is acquired by Bayardo. He acquires the house through the use of his financial power, the forceful acquisition of which leads to Xius’s death. “The widower Xius explained to him with the good breeding of olden days that the objects in the house had been bought by his wife over a whole lifetime of sacrifice and that for him they were still a part of her.” The effect of such a kind of violence not only leads to the destruction of an individual but also has the ability to spoil the emotional fabric of a society. An intense personal emotion is commodified in the case of Xius. This kind of violence can also be seen in the way the material wealth of Bayardo weighs more in significance than the emotional requirements of Angela. She is forced by her family to marry Bayardo, the rationale being that, “a family of modest means had no right to disdain that prize of destiny.” The Vicario brothers’ desire to seek revenge is also compounded by the loss of such a powerful alliance. Marquez is thus able to depict these politics of these relationships, providing us with an insight into the complex social realities of the town.

Santiago Nasar’s confusion and his inability to come to terms with the happenings around him reflect his inability at understanding the socio-historical power dynamics of his society. He moves away from the site of the spectacle to the realm of stronger bonds, perhaps suggesting that he has found a way to negotiate with the violence..

It is important to understand how patriarchy functions in a society like Latin America where their culture celebrates an openness about sexuality. It is with the advent of colonization that the Catholic notions of chastity entered the local tradition.