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What Kind of Sleep Would Androids Need to Function Effectively?

发布时间:2017-04-06
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What Kind of Sleep would Androids Need to Function Effectively?


Abstract

Technological advances on a broad front, especially advances in high performance computer design and the ability to realise multi-sensor fusion have made it possible for computer scientists to try and transform the complex processes of a human brain into software which controls high performance computers. The design of the relatively simple robots of the years gone by is now evolving into a much higher level of sophistication with computers mimicking human behaviour and capable of active, real time interactions with the environment including visual recognition of complex artefacts such as human faces. Robots with capabilities resembling those of humans, called androids, are now becoming increasingly available and the design of such androids is receiving much attention in academic as well as corporate research laboratories around the world. Androids are likely to be controlled by high performance parallel and distributed computers and advances in cognitive science are gradually being transformed into a practical theory of mind for a humanoid robot. The concept of a robot as well as that of the android were both first presented in science fiction and advances in the design of androids have resulted in interesting discussions about the capabilities as well as the philosophy of design for these humanoid robots. It is often debated if an android is likely to have a conscience and whether an android is likely to require sleep. The design of many man made objects has been influenced by creations of nature and the workings of the human mind as well as the function of sleep in humans is likely to provide an explanation for the nature of sleep in androids. This essay takes a look at the likely nature of sleep in androids, presenting several theories which serve to illustrate the issue under discussion.

Contents

1. Introduction4

2. Theories about Sleep in Androids9

2.1 Androids will not require any Sleep in order to function effectively9

2.2 An Android will require sleep when it is being reprogrammed for

operating in a New Environment10

2.3 An Android will require sleep when it has been very active and

needs to prevent Heating up of its motors or linkages or to recharge 11

2.4 An Android will need to sleep when it has been overloaded with

information from its Environment and needs to Process this Information11

2.5 An Android will sleep when it is Off Duty and there is a Requirement to Conserve Energy 14

3. Conclusion14

References / Bibliography16

List of Figures

Cog, an Android with 21 Degrees of Freedom and a Sophisticated

Sensory System6

1. Introduction

The term “android” is used to describe an autonomous or independent robot which has been designed to resemble a human and which has the capacity to mimic human behaviour to varying degrees, depending on the sophistication of its design. [1] [2] The concept of an android had its roots in science fiction, just as the concept of a robot was also first presented in fiction. Karel Capek first presented the concept of a robot, which is derived from the Czech word robota or forced labour, in his 1923 play Rossum’s Universal Robots. [3] The concept of an android was first presented by the French author Mathias Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (1838-1889) in his work Tomorrow's Eve which featured an android named Hadley. [4] With advances in computer hardware, software and the science of artificial intelligence, the design of robots has progressed steadily towards new levels of sophistication and they are now often deployed for a variety of applications which humans find to be tedious or hazardous, ranging from welding in automobile plants to assisting in inspection of hazardous environments such as nuclear power plants. The design of objects created by humans is often influenced by the creations of nature and nearly all aspects of the design of robots, ranging from their structural configuration to their sensory systems have been influenced by living things created by nature. Human beings are the most sophisticated living organisms which have been created by nature, therefore, it is the goal of robot designers to try and construct robots with capabilities that closely resemble the capabilities of an average human. Although androids are still rather rare and most of these creatures are to be found in research laboratories, there is a considerable interest in the capabilities that can be incorporated in their design as a result of developments in technology. Sophisticated processor chips, sensors, neural network technology, artificial intelligence as well as image and signal processing techniques coupled together by sophisticated software have now made it possible for scientists to talk about building a level of consciousness into androids. [5] [6] Metals are no longer the only material being used for the construction of robots and electroactive polymer materials or EAP now offer the potential to create even more realistic models of androids at a lower cost. [7]

Cog, an Android with 21 Degrees of Freedom and a Sophisticated Sensory System [8]

Androids are supposed to have the capacity for active learning from the environment and this requires sensing of large chunks of data from the environment, the processing of this data through computation, the training of neural networks and the extraction of knowledge or rules from the processed data for storage into a constantly expanding database which can be used for assistance with situations which may arise in the future. Along with such potentially massive computations, there is also a requirement for dealing with the wear and tear which an android may experience as a result of its normal activities. Ideally, an android should be able to rejuvenate itself and also reproduce as a result of its own actions, without any human assistance. However, the sophistication which can be infused into the design of an android leaves its independent reproduction as a dream for the future. Nevertheless, it is appropriate to ask if an android is likely to require some sort of a sleep or a certain level of inactivity to deal with the wear and tear that it encounters or to deal with the processing of the data which has been gathered or sensed from its environment. It may be desirable for an android to conserve energy while its computer brain processes data to convert this data into information, just as is the case with humans or other mammals. [9]

In humans and many other mammals, sleep occurs regularly each day for several hours. In some rodents, the period of time that is spent sleeping can be longer and some animals may go through a period of hibernation. In humans, the time that is spent sleeping is not particularly useful for the repair of body organs or muscle as these are constantly being repaired even during the time when a person is awake. However, during the time that is spent sleeping, the brain undergoes substantial repair and the information that has been gathered during the day is processed. The period of sleep which is known as rapid eye movement sleep or the REM sleep is the time when the cerebral cortex is switched off and the computer in the brain is powered down. The greatest information processing in the brain occurs during the REM sleep, with the brain getting rejuvenated. Without sleep, it is not possible for the cerebral cortex to be switched off and the computer of the mind remains operating at full capacity, ready to respond to any stimulus even when a person is lying down and resting. Sleep deprivation in humans’ causes the frontal cortex of the human brain, which is about 30 % of the cerebrum, to perform poorly and affects attention, inhabitation of stimulus which can have an impact on distraction, planning, speech, innovation and flexible thinking. Thus, sleep is essential in humans to enable the brain to perform adequately. In some rodent animals, sleep deprivation for a period of about fourteen days has been known to cause death as demonstrated in laboratory experiments. There is an increase in cell division during sleep in mammals and this is also supported by a surge in the release of the human growth hormone in humans. Hence, it can be concluded that sleep in humans serves as an immobiliser and energy conserver as well as being essential for the restoration of the higher level cerebral function. [10]

Androids, which are machines with human programmed intelligence, will definitely require repairs to be performed on them to recover from any mechanical wear and tear, even though this may not be required very frequently. However, the computer or the brain which is responsible for the intelligence in an android may not be subject to mechanical wear and tear, because of the electronic nature of its construction, although some sort of hibernation may be required to conserve energy and to process information by allocating the maximum computational resources to such processing. Thus, it is both interesting as well as essential from a design perspective to investigate the nature of “sleep” or down – time which may be required for an android robot. The nature of android sleep is the topic of discussion in this brief essay and the next few sections of this essay discuss some of the theories which have been presented in relation to sleep in androids in the light of the construction of androids as reported in published literature.

2. Theories about Sleep in Androids

A few theories about the nature of sleep in androids are presented and discussed below. The theories that have been presented are by no means exhaustive, but these theories should help in illustrating the likely nature of sleep in androids.

2.1 Androids will not require any Sleep in order to function effectively

This theory is obviously incorrect because at present, even the simplest android which can be constructed is likely to be full of mechanical linkages, stepper motors, gears and sensors which will, at the very least, require adjustments or alignment in order to enable the android to function. [11] Hence, after a period of operation, the android is likely to be switched off or hibernated with only its electronic computer system remaining powered up so that the required maintenance can be carried out. If an android is not required to be fully switched on in order to perform an intended function, then need for conservation of energy too will require that the android be switched into a lower energy consumption state. Humans will be required to adjust and maintain the android because androids which are sufficiently intelligent or capable of repairing other androids have not yet been invented. Even if a reasonably reliable android is designed, the requirements associated with the training of its neural networks to recognise speech from a particular person or to recognise a face will require that the android will need to have some sort of a down – time when it is not fully operational. [12] Hence, the theory about androids not requiring any sleep whatsoever is obviously incorrect.

2.2 An Android will require sleep when it is being reprogrammed for operating in a New Environment

The state of the art androids that are being built for experimental purposes at research laboratories such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology often have software API’s for designing behaviour based control systems for operating in an environment or for interactions within the environment. [13] An android is likely to require reprogramming when it is to operate in a new environment with its own geometry or map which is unfamiliar to the computer system that provides intelligence to the robot. The computers which are used in the android brains of today are MIMD type parallel computers such as microcontrollers or industrial PC’s which are connected together by a shared RAM memory or Ethernet network. [14] Audio and visual systems use separate networks of digital signal processors which are linked to the parallel computers. The parallel computers are required in order to handle the large data sets which must be processed quickly and programming these can be complex. Even if an android was to familiarise itself with a new environment through a process of exploration and sensing, the data that is generated as a result of such an exploration will be required to be transformed into an internal database or map. Such an exploration and the generation of an internal map is likely to be computationally intensive and this may require that the android take time off from its exploration to process and dump this processed data into long term storage. However, once a map for a new environment has been created, it should be possible to store this map on a hard disk or other storage device for quick retrieval. Thus, some sort of sleep is required to modify the operating software of an android in order to modify either its personality or the manner in which it interacts with its environment and to alter the programmed knowledge of its environment.

2.3 An Android will require sleep when it has been very active and needs to prevent Heating up of its motors or linkages or to recharge

If an android has been very active as a result of vigorous movement or activity which was undertaken under programmed instruction or in response to environmental stimuli, then it is very likely that the stepper or servo motors driving the skeleton may heat up or generate stresses in linkages etc. [15] Vigorous activity may also be draining energy at an unacceptable rate and this is even more unacceptable for storage battery powered androids. Thus, the movement control system of an android may decide to limit stressful movement or the computer system controlling the android may decide on the basis of the algorithms which have been programmed in its software that it is time for a recharge of the batteries. In such a situation, a partial power shutdown of android systems may be initiated so that the android may recharge or prevent any permanent damage from taking place to its systems which may require lengthy repairs.

2.4 An Android will need to sleep when it has been overloaded with information from its Environment and needs to Process this Information

A human being picks up a massive amount of information from the environment and this information is then processed by the brain so that appropriate responses can be generated for environmental inputs. Environmental inputs consisting of visual, auditory, somatosensory and olfactory cues have to be processed simultaneously to provide an immediate response for environmental inputs. Short term memory is converted into the long term memory after information which is considered to be important for the future has been suitably processed by the brain. Information processing in androids can occur during sleep or when the android is less active. An android may switch off and perform the task of information processing rather then interaction with the environment. Androids, whose design functionally resembles a human, must be able to receive auditory as well as visual information and tactile sensors provide touch feedback. Rate gyroscopes simulate the function of the semi – circular canals in the human ear. The state of the motor systems is constantly fed back into the central computer controlling the android. There are a number of motor systems which control different body parts such as the arms, legs, neck, torso and the knee etc. Emotive responses are also required to be provided in addition to any speech or movement. Self learning androids are essential if robots are to be made capable of learning from real world data and hence be able to function independently in the vast diversity of the real world. Such androids will have to be trained in a large variety of real world situations, with such training being crucial for an ability to develop robust systems which are able to recognise speech, adequately handle vision, recognise real world objects and be in a position to deal with intricate pattern recognition, such as face detection in real time. The set of objects which an android will be called upon to handle today can be different from those which were required to be handled yesterday and constantly changing inputs of information consisting of large data sets may be required to be stored in a semi processed form so that quick retrieval and use of learning can be made possible. [16] If an android is required to present responses that closely resemble the behaviour of humans then it must be able to present the most appropriate emotive cues in response to environmental stimulus which is itself a combination of a large number of complex stimuli that are required to be picked up in real time. Thus, the computational resources of an android may find it difficult to cope with large data inputs from the environment in real time and the processing of such data. Partial processing of real time inputs, their generalisation into rules and storage for retrieval or more complex processing at a time when the real time inputs from the environment are minimal, or have been shut off, is likely to be required in the more sophisticated androids. An android is, therefore, likely to require to have some sleep when its brain or master computer shuts off large data set inputs from the environment and concentrates on the processing the previously acquired information into suitable forms of data. Information which is acquired from the environment may be partially processed with results of intermediate processing being stored. A partial shutting out of the environment is similar to the sleep requirements for the human brain in which the brain indulges in the deep processing of information which has been collected during the waking hours and after processing, important results of such processing are shifted into the long term memory within the brain. It is very likely that complex android designs with capabilities that are closer to the capabilities of the human brain will require far more information processing involving complex computations. Thus, unless the design of the android brain or the master computer can match the requirements imposed for computation associated with real time data acquisition, sleep or a partial shutdown may be required. The relatively more sophisticated androids with more complex interactions are likely to require more sleep. Just as in humans who have grown old and learned from the environment after processing and shifting their experiences into the long term memory which becomes fuller, limiting new learning, androids which have learned from their environment and processed information into sophisticated rules which are stored in the long term storage area of the android’s master computer may require less sleep. It is interesting to note that androids which are broadly of the same design can influence future designs or assist in the training of younger androids by transferring their processed rules from their long term storage into that of the untrained androids. Hence, a mechanically worn out android may shift its learning to other androids prior to being scrapped, dying or being substantially overhauled. The nature of the processing which may be required for information that is sensed from the environment depends on the coding of models which have been created from studies of information processing in the human brain. With the development of even faster computers which may be used in androids, the processing time is likely to decrease. [17]

2.5 An Android will sleep when it is Off Duty and there is a Requirement to Conserve Energy

When an android is not required to be used for its intended application, it will be wasteful to have the android fully powered and doing nothing. Thus, if an android which has been deployed as a security guard on a premises is not required to perform its intended duties because the space which the android is required to guard is full of people and humans can adequately take over its functions, then the android can switch to its trickle power mode until it is required to perform its security duties, perhaps at night when the number of humans is far fewer. The switch to a trickle power mode may be initiated by the android’s master computer, perhaps after the permission of its human operators and this switch to a low power mode may be considered as an act of sleeping. This relatively inactive time can be used by the android for other tasks associated with maintenance or information modelling. Thus, androids may switch to a sleep mode when they are not required to be fully operational and powered up.

The next section presents the conclusions which may be drawn from the previous discussion.

3. Conclusion

From the previous discussion of androids and their construction, it can be concluded that androids will require some sort of a power down or sleep in order to function effectively. The reliability as well as maintainability of the many sophisticated sub - systems which make up an android will require that androids be powered down periodically for maintenance and that the android be prevented from stressful motion which is likely to cause damage to its structure or overheating in its motors. A typical android will require mechanical adjustments and calibration of its sensors or audio – visual subsystems. Androids which are required to learn from the environment and imitate the complex human brain processes may become overloaded with information and this information may be required to be processed into behaviour rules which are stored in the bulk memory. Such processing, which may be computationally intense, may be required to be completed when an android is not actively interacting with its environment, due to the information processing overload which may occur. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that androids are likely to require periods in time when they are not fully operational or interacting with the environment and such time periods may be regarded as resembling sleep. As technology develops and higher performance computers evolve along with more reliable mechanical systems, the period of time which an android may spend sleeping or computationally distanced from its environment may be substantially reduced.

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