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The Human Right to Water in Palestine and Israel

发布时间:2018-04-18
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3. The Situation in Gaza

The sole fresh water resource of Gaza is the Coastal Aquifer, which also runs beneath the coast of Israel. Lacking secure access to water, the population has drilled a very large number of unlicensed wells.[1] Current abstraction of water from the aquifer in Gaza is estimated at 160 MCM/Y.[2] Consequently, there has been a continuous decline in the static water level, water quality has been deteriorating, and there is an increase of seawater intrusion.[3] Now 90-95 per cent of the portion of the aquifer underlying Gaza is in unfit for human consumption. [4] The aquifer could become unusable as early as 2016, with the damage irreversible by 2020, and even with remedial action now to cease abstraction, the aquifer will take decades to recover.[5] Due to over-exploitation and inappropriate wastewater treatment, the Coastal Aquifer as the main water resource for the Gaza Strip is heavily polluted and it causes a huge number of health problems.[6] According to the Department of Health of the UN Relief and Work Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA), waterborne diseases are increasingly common and diarrhea is a major cause of death in the refugee population of the Gaza Strip.[7]

The water crisis in Gaza is not limited to the deficit in water supply, but also to quality of water.[8] The quality of water constitutes a major problem for the population as water supplies contain high concentrations of salts and nitrates, compounds that are difficult and costly to remove from drinking water supplies.[9] Given that tap water is too polluted, the vast majority of residents of the Gaza Strip purchase water for personal consumption from external vendors, while others rely on desalinated water supplied by the Coastal Municipalities Water Utility (CMWU).[10] There are at least 40 private desalination plants selling both wholesale by tanker and retail by jerry can, producing about 2,000 cubic meters a day.[11] In an area where high rates of poverty and unemployment are already prevalent, some families spend about one third of their income on water.[12]

While Israel does not exercise direct oversight of Palestinian water projects in Gaza, the illegal closure resgime aggravated by regular Israeli military incursions as well as three wars launched over the past six years have undermined any substantive development of the Palestinian water sector.[13] As a result of the extreme restrictions on movement of goods and persons in and out of Gaza, UN agencies have been unable to advance even smaller relief projects due to the lack of basic resources like electricity, pipes and cement makes repair.[14] Even when construction materials are allowed into Gaza, the cost of transporting them through Israeli crossings inflates project prices dramatically.[15] Aside from the treatment facilities erected in response to a humanitarian emergency precipitated by the discharge of massive amounts of untreated wastewater, projects are either not started or held up because of lack of materials or other constraints related to the closures. Israeli military offensives only worsen the existing crisis.[16]

Furthermore, the Israeli army destroys water infrastructure during military operations, such as air strikes and ground incursions. Israel enforces the so-called buffer zone along Gaza border by levelling land and destroying or damaging private property located therein.[17] According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA), since the imposition of the illegal regime of closures in 2005 up to 2010, more than 300 water wells had been destroyed in the buffer zone.[18]

4. Discrimination in Water

Water is scarce in the region, but scarcity cannot be solely about numbers, no matter how compelling, surprising or shocking they may be.[19] In both Israel and the settlements, water is flowing without limits.[20] The Israeli experience of scarcity, grounded in numbers, is radically different from that of the Palestinians, grounded in daily shortages and interruptions.[21] In fact, to the Palestinian neighbor, the settlement looks very much like 'the land of abundance that lived for so long in the Zionist imagination'.[22] The level of unrestricted access to water enjoyed by those residing in Israel and Israeli settlers demonstrates that resources are plentiful and that the lack of sufficient water for Palestinians is a direct result of Israel’s discriminatory policies in water management.[23] Each Israeli, including West Bank settlers, enjoys a per capita availability of fresh water resources over four times that of a Palestinian.[24]

With access to a mere 11 per cent of the Mountain Aquifer’s resources, a quarter of total extractions from the shared Coastal Aquifer, and no access to surface water, Palestinians in the OPT have access to 10 per cent only of all available water in the region, whereas the remaining 90 per cent is retained by Israel.[25] The actual domestic consumption for the Palestinians in the West Bank averages 50 lpcd, with some network services providing as little as 10-15 lpcd.[26] In Gaza, availability of clean water is limited for most Palestinians with average consumption of 70 to 90 lpcd (depending on the season).[27] On the other hand, an Israeli citizen's domestic consumption is around 320 lpcd.[28] World Health Organization (WHO) recommended standard of 100 lcpd for optimal water supply, and international humanitarian disaster response agencies dopted a '15 lpcd, 500 meters minimum distance to source' criterion as the bare minimum to avoid epidemics.[29] With water usage as low 10 lpcd in some areas, some communities of the West Bank, especially in Area C, face water access comparable to that of refugee camps in Congo or Sudan.[30] About 10 per cent of the Palestinian population in the West Bank have no access to water networks.[31]

Case Study

During the summer of 1998, drought conditions is Palestine were severe. Hebron and Bethlehem were hit the hardest, as some areas did not have running water for two months at a time.[32] An Israeli reporter expressed astonishment that although Hebron, a city of 200,000 at the time, had been denied water for a month, "there is no sign of a water shortage in the Jewish settlements just outside Hebron. There and in Israel as a whole, residents still water lawns and wash their cars".[33] Amira Hass, a Haaretz reporter, talked about how per capita supply of 30 cm fell to 6.7 cm for individuals making up a population of half a million in the West Bank during those summer months.[34]

5. Importance of Water for Palestinian Socio-Economic Development

The Palestinian economy has not expanded beyond agriculture, small-scale industry and a high level of unemployment. Every economic activity requires Israeli approval.[35] With the beginning of the second Intifada in 2000 the level of economic activity even decreased.[36] Due to the economic decline in the OPT as a result of Israeli-imposed restrictions on movement, lack of domestic and foreign investment and prevention of Palestinians from working in Israel, more and more communities are increasingly dependent on agriculture for both their food security and income.[37]

Irrigation is a vital component of agricultural production in Palestine due to the climatic conditions, but irrigation, and therefore extensive agriculture, is restricted by the limited water resources available to the Palestinians.[38] Irrigated agriculture, which covers about 12 per cent of cultivated land, uses about two thirds of Palestinian water resources and contributes gross output of about $500 million annually, equivalent to 12% of the Palestinian GDP.[39] The agricultural sector contributes 25 per cent of exports, and it is the third largest employer; formal employment in the sector in 2005 was estimated at 117,000 people.[40]

The agricultural sector still plays a central role in achieving food security for Palestinian families as a remarkable number of families still depend on this sector for the provision of their basic food needs.[41] The Palestinian agricultural sector has potential, but is constrained by lack of water and by the absence of knowledge on the more advanced and efficient agricultural practices.[42] There is a very high interest in expanding irrigation, particularly for protected agriculture, which is profitable. However, all agricultural wells date from before 1967, wells and springs have been progressively drying up and no new agricultural wells have been licensed.[43] In 2009 the World Bank estimated the agricultural water use in the OPT at about 150 MCM/Y, roughly 10 per cent of agricultural water use in Israel.[44]

There is a huge gap between water supply and water demand in the OPT, and this is increasing over time because the water supply is effectively constrained by Israel.[45] This gap has severe adverse effects on both current and future Palestinian socio-economic development.[46] Additionally, there is a great deal of uncertainty with regard to the quantity and quality of cheap, locally accessible water that will be available for future Palestinian use.[47]

Furthermore, water as a resource itself is necessary to promote many Palestinian industries such as food, fodder, leather, shoes, soap, furniture, cosmetics and tourist industry.[48]


[1] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009)28.

[2] United Nations Country Team in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 'Gaza in 2020: A Liveable Place?' (2012) 11.

[3] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009)27.

[4] Amnesty International, 'Troubled Waters – Palestinians Denied Fair Access to Water: Israel-Occupied Palestinian Territories' (2009) 8.

[5] United Nations Country Team in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 'Gaza in 2020: A Liveable Place?' (2012)11-12.

[6] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 313.

[7] Al Haq, 'Water for One People: Discriminatory Access and "Water Apartheid" in the OPT' (2013) 30.

[8] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 313.

[9] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 28.

[10] Al Haq, 'Water for One People: Discriminatory Access and "Water Apartheid" in the OPT' (2013)30-31.

[11] World Bank, 'Assessment Of And Restrictions On Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009)28.

[12] Al Haq, 'Water For One People: Discriminatory Access And "Water Apartheid" In The OPT' (2013)31.

[13] Jeffrey D. Stein, 'Waging Waterfare: Israel, Palestinians, And The Need For A New Hydro-Logic To Govern Water Rights Under Occupation' (2011) 44 NYU International Law and Politics, 182.

[14] Jeffrey D. Stein, 'Waging Waterfare: Israel, Palestinians, And The Need For A New Hydro-Logic To Govern Water Rights Under Occupation' (2011) 44 NYU International Law and Politics, 182.

[15] Jeffrey D. Stein, 'Waging Waterfare: Israel, Palestinians, And The Need For A New Hydro-Logic To Govern Water Rights Under Occupation' (2011) 44 NYU International Law and Politics, 183.

[16] Jeffrey D. Stein, 'Waging Waterfare: Israel, Palestinians, And The Need For A New Hydro-Logic To Govern Water Rights Under Occupation' (2011) 44 NYU International Law and Politics, 183.

[17] Al Haq, 'Water For One People: Discriminatory Access And "Water Apartheid" In The OPT' (2013)62-63.

[18] OCHA, 'Between The Fence And A Hard Place: The Humanitarian Impact Of Israeli-Imposed Restrictions On Access To Land And Sea In The Gaza Strip' (2010)19.

[19] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000) 80.

[20] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000) 80.

[21] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000) 80.

[22] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000) 80.

[23] Al Haq, 'Water for One People: Discriminatory Access and "Water Apartheid" in the OPT' (Al Haq 2013) 16.

[24] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 4.

[25] Al Haq, 'Water for One People: Discriminatory Access and "Water Apartheid" in the OPT' (2013) 31.

[26] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 14.

[27] United Nations Country Team in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 'Gaza in 2020: A Liveable Place?' (2012) 11.

[28] Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, ''Policies of Denial: Lack of Access to Water in the West Bank' (2008) 16.

[29] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 17.

[30] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 17.

[31] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 17.

[32] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000)79.

[33] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000)79.

[34] David B Brooks and Ozay Mehmet, Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean (IDRC 2000)79.

[35] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 307.

[36] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 307.

[37] Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, 'Policies of Denial: Lack of Access to Water in the West Bank' (2008)16.

[38] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 307.

[39] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 25.

[40] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 25.

[41] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 307.

[42] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009) 26.

[43] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009)26.

[44] World Bank, 'Assessment of and Restrictions on Palestinian Water Sector Development' (2009)26.

[45] Asit K Biswas, Eglal Rached and Cecilia Tortajada, Water As A Human Right for the Middle East and North Africa (Routledge 2008) 89.

[46] Asit K Biswas, Eglal Rached and Cecilia Tortajada, Water As A Human Right for the Middle East and North Africa (Routledge 2008) 89.

[47] Asit K Biswas, Eglal Rached and Cecilia Tortajada, Water As A Human Right for the Middle East and North Africa (Routledge 2008) 89.

[48] Simone Klawitter, 'Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water Rights in Palestine' (2007) 23 International Journal of Water Resources Development, 307.

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