Drinking Water Resources in Scotland

Drinking Water Resources in Scotland

INTRODUCTION

The average annual rainfall across Scotland vary greatly with the Western Highlands being one of the wettest places in Europe with 4577mm of rainfall, however, the east coast receives much less rainfall only at about 550mm of rain annually (Education Scotland, n.d). Hence Scotland is rich in terms of surface water resources such as rivers, lochs, and burns (small rivers). However, only about 1 percent of this has been harnessed for public water supply (Foundation for Water Research, n.d).

As at April, 2006, there were 568 operational drinking water sources in Scotland including 240 river and burn sources; 174 reservoirs; 60 lochs; 54 boreholes (ground water sources); and 40 spring water systems. The vast majority of river and burn sources are small and provide water supplies to localised communities, although there are a few larger rivers on the east coast that supply wider areas.

The large reservoirs are situated mainly in the south of Scotland where they supply the major cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dundee while the small supply reservoirs are found further north. Lochs are a major source in the north and west of Scotland, however, none of the lochs on the east is used for public water supply. Springs and boreholes are used across Scotland to replace surface water where these are of a low quality.

Water resources in Scotland are generally of high quality with adequate volume to meet current demand, however, these resources are not uniformly distributed and there are significant pressures from human population, land use and climate change on both quality and quantity in certain regions like the central belt.

Scottish Water (2010) states that about 30 percent of the Scottish population live in areas where the margin between supply and demand is small and that despite improvement in water infrastructure, a minor segment of the population will still be living in areas with supply/demand deficit by 2015.

The water supply infrastructure in Scotland is divided into approximately 220 water resources zones (WRZs), and in normal conditions water is not moved between zones, so each WRZ is considered independent from the point of view of demand/supply. However, some WRZ located in remote areas such as the highlands are very small, sometimes serving less than 50 people. For more efficient national water resource planning, Scottish Water has grouped these WRZs into 16 mega zones (Scottish Water, 2010).

QUALITIES OF DRINKING WATER SOURCES

The environmental quality of surface and ground waters in Scotland, i.e. the degree to which they have been impacted by human activity varies widely as do their natural qualities. In order to determine the condition of these waters in Scotland, Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) has sub-divided Scottish waters into 3000 water bodies (SEPA, n.d). A classification system also introduced by SEPA makes clear the condition of each water body and where improvements need to be targeted.

At the end of 2006, the assessment and classification methods used were developed jointly with the rest of the United Kingdom (UK), as some aspects of it checked for comparability with those of other European countries. Hence Scottish waters have been classified on the basis of European legislation, which attest to its robustness, completeness and accuracy.

To be in good condition, surface waters in Scotland must be clean and free of pollutants in concentrations that would harm the aquatic organisms they support. A great deal of progress has been made in the last few decades in preventing and reducing pollution in Scotland. This has resulted in 82 percent of all Scottish surface water bodies being classed as either good or better (Natural Scotland, n.d).

The classification of ground water considers whether or not such water bodies are polluted and if the water being abstracted from them is sustainable without significant impact on other water bodies that may depend on ground water. Nearly 76 percent of ground water resources are at good status (Natural Scotland, n.d).

PRESSURES, THREATS AND TRENDS.

Before 1800 most rivers and lochs in Scotland were clean and in healthy condition with just a few rivers recording pollution from sewage and trade waste. However, by 1850 most rivers in the densely populated Central Lowlands of Scotland had become little more than open sewers as a result of rapid industrialisation and population growth without a corresponding pollution control legislation (Natural Scotland, n.d.)

The impact of agriculture on Scotland waters varies with the agricultural practice and its location. Fertiliser application contribute to eutrophication of fresh waters through surface run-off and sub-soil drainage (Bailey-Watts, 1994). In April 2000, a number of rivers including the River Ythan in north-east Scotland were designated by SEPA as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones.

Herbicides and pesticides have also been found in Scottish waters via wind drift, disposal of spray tank washings and poorly sited soakaways which have been toxic to aquatic flora, fauna and is sometimes difficult to remove in the drinking water treatment process.

However, there have been improvement in Scotland’s water quality in the last two decades as a result of enforcement of discharge consents, improved efficiency of effluent treatment facilities, and greater public awareness and vigilance. The establishment of the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) in 1996 and subsequent improvement in enforcing legislation has been a major contributor to the enhanced quality of Scottish rivers and lochs as sources for drinking water purposes.

REGULATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN SCOTLAND

The Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) is responsible for environmental regulation and improvement in Scotland. The Environment Act 1995 has saddled SEPA with the responsibility of maintaining and improving the water environment through regulation and other means. SEPA has fulfilled its duty through regulatory actions and improvement schemes to protect and enhance Scotland’s water sources. In addition SEPA monitors and reports on the condition of these waters across Scotland for national reporting and to demonstrate compliance with European water directives.

The drinking water quality regulator (DWQR) has the responsibility for ensuring that drinking water in Scotland is safe. DWQR enforces the Water Supply (Water Quality) (Scotland) Regulations 2001 by auditing and inspecting Scottish Water’s water treatment facilities, operational activities and laboratories to ensure the quality of drinking water is maintained at all times and that the required tests to ascertain water quality are performed accurately and in compliance with approved standards.

CONCLUSION

Scotland is a very wet country, so it is not surprising that over 90 percent of its drinking water supply is from surface water such as river, lochs, reservoirs etc. Generally the availability of water is good as there is enough water to meet demand even in the summer when demand increase and supply drops due reduced rainfall. However, in the heavily populated central belt including Glasgow and Edinburgh, there may be need to boost water supply in the summer through additional reservoirs or tapping into another river or loch for supplies.

The historical pollution of Scottish drinking water resources during the industrial revolution is beginning to become a thing of the past. Under European Union legislation especially the Water Framework Directive (WFD), SEPA has over the years mapped and classified all Scottish water bodies with a view to prescribing relevant remedial action to clean water bodies that do not meet good status. Legislation is also driving the prevention of pollution which is even buoyed by increased public awareness and vigilance.

Scottish drinking water is usually safe to drink except for a few outbreaks of water-borne disease such as the cryptosporidiosis which has occurred in the last two decades. Pollock et al (2008) have found that “In Scotland, 600-900 laboratory confirmed cases of cryptosporidiosis are reported to Health Protection Scotland (HPS) each year…90 confirmed cases in Glasgow in 2000 associated with the unfiltered Loch Katrine water and 140 cases in Aberdeen in 2002 associated with the suboptimal filtration of River Dee water”. However, since November 1999, enhanced physical treatment such as coagulation and rapid gravity filtration have been introduced in the Loch Lomond Water Treatment facility to reduce the cyst load in final water supply.

Scottish Water currently has one of the lowest charges for water supply in the United Kingdom. There could many reasons for this, whilst drinking water supply and waste management are carried out by private companies in England and Wales, Scottish Water is a publicly funded body and Since it does not pay any shareholders, some of those savings may have been passed on to consumers as reduced water rates. However, Scottish Water may face challenges in raising finance to meet its investment plans as public financial support may be constrained especially during an economic recession.

SEPA appears to be a thorough regulator, and has been doing ground-breaking work with regards managing Scotland’s water environment which includes both drinking water and non-drinking water sources. The general perception of SEPA is one of professionalism, competence and compliance enforcement. Only the mention of its name is enough to strike fear in would be violators of environmental regulations and indeed water legislation.

DWQR is not that well known, as it tends to deal more with professionals in the water industry like Scottish Water rather than the general public. However, an overview of the compliance rate of Scottish drinking water is mostly above 98 percent, which is very commendable. The regulatory environment for water in Scotland seem to be one to emulate.

FUTURE THREATS/OPPORTUNITIES

The impact of climate change might radically alter the amount of rainfall available in Scotland thereby depleting available surface water for drinking purposes. This may lead to a breakdown of the of the already stressed supply/demand imbalance in the densely populated central belt. In order to avoid this government, the water industry and researchers need to start now to design cost-effective measures for sustainable water supply which considers the effects of climate change.

Individuals may have to consider using less water to meet their daily needs as the current level of consumption is not sustainable, and the introduction of a two-tier water treatment system may be more efficient and cost-effective in the long term. This may not involve and entirely new and separate network of pipework, rather just some additional piping and a separation of drinking water and water for other purposes. This will reduce the cost of water purification, as only a fraction of the current demand need to be cleaned to drinking water quality.

REFERENCES

Bailey-Watts, A. E. (1994) Eutrophication. In Maitland, P.S., Boon, P. J. and McLusky, D. S (Eds) The Fresh Waters of Scotland: A National Resource of International Significance. John Wiley, Chichester, 385-412.

Education Scotland (n.d), Scottish Climate. Retrieved from http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/weatherandclimatechange/climate/scottishclimate.asp [Accessed 05 March 2014]

Foundation for Water Research (FWR) (n.d), Water Management. Retrieved from http://www.euwfd.com/html/water_management.html [Accessed: 05 March 2014]

Kevin G.J. Pollock et al (2008), Cryptosporidiosis and Filtration of Water Loch Lomond, Scotland. Emerging Infectious Diseases January 2008; 14(1): 115-120. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600157/ [Accessed 09 March 2014]

Natural Heritage Zones: A national assessment of Scotland’s fresh waters (2001). Retrieved from http://www.snh.gov.uk/docs/A337651.pdf [Accessed 08 March 2014]

Natural Scotland (n.d), The river basin management plan for the Scotland river basin district 2009-2015. Retrieved from http://www.sepa.org.uk/water/river_basin_planning/idoc.ashx?docid=ee8a4f48-14ea-4a05-a1ff-b464a4fd500d&version=-1 [Accessed 08 March 2014]

Sample James et al (2012), Scotland’s water resources: impacts of land use and climate change. Retrieved from: http://79.170.44.105/test-hydrology.org.uk/assets/Documents/Sample_48.pdf [Accessed 08 March 2014]

SEPA (n.d), An economic analysis of water use in the Scotland river basin district- Summary Report. Retrieved from http://www.sepa.org.uk/water/water_publications/idoc.ashx?docid=97c30802-4d5e-4eaa-a701-6b6521671b4b&version=-1 [Accessed: 08 March 2014]