The Hero in Greek and Roman Myth

CLST 100 Final Exam

In myth, heroes are defined by their actions given whatever circumstances they may find themselves in. Heroes are created and immortalized in myth and the characteristics of a hero differ depending on the values and beliefs of the culture that creates a myth. In the Greek and Roman myths that we have read in this class, the act of suffering and of overcoming that suffering to complete a task or reach a destination is what makes the protagonist a hero, both in our eyes and in the eyes of the culture from whence the myth came.

From the start of The Odyssey, the question of why men suffer encompasses the book as a major theme. Zeus himself says “'Oh for shame, how the mortals put the blame on us gods, for they say evils come from us, but it is they, rather, who by their own recklessness win sorrow beyond what is given […].' (1.32-34). Zeus suggests that much of the suffering that Odysseus experiences is the result of the wrongdoing of the hero himself. However this situation is not entirely without hope or reason as if this suffering and adversity is met head-on and tenaciously, in heroic fashion, the suffering will only be transitory in nature and can help remove past wrongdoings while bringing future rewards.

As mentioned previously, in myth suffering often occurs as a means of repenting for some debt incurred by a wrongdoing. Odysseus too must make restitution for a past misdeed. During the war, Odysseus and his men desecrate and pillage the city of Troy. Troy is frequently identified with family life and homecomings throughout The Iliad, so in destroying this, the Greeks symbolically ruined their own homecomings and family lives. However, Odysseus’ wanderings excise this guilt. In essence in The Odyssey and in much of Greek myth, suffering serves as a redemption of sorts. Odysseus committed wrongdoings by angering the gods, first by the sacking and pillaging of Troy and then by his hubris in hurting Polyphemus and then boasting about it. However, after that fact, Odysseus’s wanderings served as a form of purgatory in order to purge away his sins and expose his heroic traits. Enduring these travails in a heroic fashion, even turning away the immortality that Calypso offers him, leads him to finally achieve fulfillment of his deepest wishes, that of returning to Ithaca.

This Greek theme of suffering as a means for renewing hope, by expiating guilt, and by leading to a reward or fulfillment of goals that those who do not endure suffering will not receive can also be found in several of the Greek tragedies that were presented in the class. The idea of suffering as a virtuous struggle for heroes is embodied in Greek culture as an idea called pathos which states the experience of virtuous struggle and suffering leads to rewards or the completion of a sought after goal.

A variation of this same idea can be found in Sophocle’s play, Oedipus the King. As the play progresses, Oedipus gradually learns the truth of his awful fate and circumstances. Though the prophet Teiresias continually exhorts the circumstances of Oedipus, Jocasta and Oedipus ignore him. As Teiresias is in some ways a conduit of the gods, ignoring his prophecy is in a essence the same as ignoring the will of the gods. This relates back to Greek culture as in the fifth century, the rise of humanism in Athenian culture led many individuals, particularly the elite to see themselves as having absolute free will or in other words being increasingly independent of the gods. In Oedipus this tension between fate and free will can be seen when Jocasta ignores the prophecies only to later see that they have proven to be true. Oedipus also tries to challenge the gods but by the end of the play it is clear that the will of the gods will prevail. This is exemplified by the conversation between Teiresias and Oedipus which goes as follows: TEIRESIAS: Well, it will come what will, though I be mute. OEDIPUS: Since come it must, thy duty is to tell me. TEIRESIAS: I have no more to say; storm as thou willst, And give the rein to all thy pent-up rage. (341-347).

Using this passage and others, Sophocles asserts that there is a limit to human reason and that gods are more powerful than men and can control their destinies. This is further demonstrated when Teiresias speaks in lines 444-461 of the play. In this section Teiresias shows his confidence in his ability to prophesize even while Oedipus demonstrates that he doesn’t believe. Sophocles again demonstrates the strength of the gods and of fate over the free will of man. According to Aristotle, in Greek tragedy the tragic hero undergoes great pain and suffering because he or she marks a mistake in judgment or has a tragic flaw. This idea is known as hamartia and helps to demonstrate the causes of suffering that Oedipus experiences in Oedipus the King (http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/aristotle/terms/hamartia.html). In Oedipus The King the theme of fate and free will and suffering and inextricably linked. Though the god’s have determined Oedipus’s fate due to his hubris and pride, the reader can’t help but feel some sympathy for Oedipus, this tragic hero, since to some extent it seems that he doesn’t deserve what ultimately comes his way. However, the ending of Oedipus the King serves to show that human suffering and by extension the suffering of heroes can be attributed to a large part, not due to their tragic flaw but due to the will and whims of the gods.

The structuralist binaries and opposites of free will and fate/destiny are present in much of Greek and Roman mythology. Some myths lean towards the predetermined fate and destiny side such as Aeneas in the Aeneid and Oedipus in Oedipus the King. while others learn towards humanism and free will. In most of these myths it can be said that suffering occurs when the balance between free will and fate are disrupted, whether by ignorance or through the machinations of the gods.

As demonstrated above, while in Greek mythology and culture, the suffering of heroes can be thought of as a sort of purgation and transitory period in which past misdeeds are forgotten after which the goals and ultimate wishes of the hero are fulfilled. In contrast, in Roman culture pietas, or duty and devotion can be thought of as one of the chief virtues. Under a functionalist interpretation, myth serves to legitimize certain social and cultural traditions that the culture as a whole holds dear. In this sense, the suffering of heroes serves as the truest expression of the culture’s values as a hero is supposed to be an individual that most exhibits that culture’s values and traditions. As previously mentioned, the suffering of Odysseus and Oedipus is meant to showcase some of the values of the Greek culture such as the supremacy of the gods and the bad things that take place if the gods are not heeded, as in Oedipus’s case or when they are angered, as when Odysseus angers Poseidon by blinding Polyphemus and exhibiting hubris. These myths and the values that they depict might have also been used as a counterpoint to the rise of humanism in Athens.

On the other hand, Roman culture was appreciative of the values of pietas and success in general. In The Aeneid, much of the drama and suffering of Aeneas comes about whenever there is a conflict between Aeneas’s sense of duty and his personal desires and wishes. An example of this is when Aeneas allows himself to succumb to the easy lifestyle in Carthage and the spell of Dido and Mercury is send down by Jupiter to remind Aeneas of his responsibilities. The following quote showcases this moment in The Aeneid. “Amazed, and shocked to the bottom of his soul by what his eyes had seen, Aeneas felt his shackles rise, his voice choke in his throat. As the sharp admonition and command from heaven had shaken him awake, he now burned only to be gone, to leave that land of the sweet life behind.” (4.379-395). This sense of duty and compulsion is constantly reinforced by the repetition of a variation of the phrase “duty-bound Aeneas” and constantly focuses the reader’s mind on pietas as the primary value of the founder of Roman civilization. Regardless of the sacrifice and suffering that results Aeneas is showcased as an individual who endures sacrifice and suffering for a higher purpose and in doing so demonstrates the ideal of Virgil’s society.

Though there are some differences between Greek and Roman myths as to the causes of the suffering of heroes, there are also some similarities. In both cultures, fate and destiny frequently play a role in the suffering that the protagonists bear. However, ultimately, the suffering of heroes serves to show that even the best among mortals has flaws and that even if the actions that one takes have the noblest intentions, fate and destiny can intervene and cause suffering. However, in most cases the myths also show that if one meets the adversities head on, whether stoically as in the case of the Romans or with emotion and lament shown as in the case of Odysseus, one can reach their goals and fulfill their wishes.